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"ABSTRAKPenelitian ini mempelajari faktor-faktor yang melatarbelakangi lebih besarnya ekspor Thailand ke Timur Tengah, dibandingkan dengan ekspor Indonesia. Tujuannya adalah untuk mempelajari pengalaman Thailand dalam meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekspornya ke kawasan tersebut. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode kualitatif, wawancara dan riset pustaka. Dari hasil penelitian ini, disarankan agar kapabilitas teknologi di sektor industri perlu ditingkatkan; beberapa instrumen kebijakan strategis perlu digunakan demi pembangunan industri nasional; isu infrastruktur, lingkungan bisnis dan upah buruh segera diatasi untuk memperkuat daya saing ekonomi; kolaborasi pemerintah dan sektor swasta dilembagakan; perjanjian bilateral dimanfaatkan untuk memperluas akses pasar; alokasi anggaran untuk program promosi dan misi dagang ditingkatkan.

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ABSTRACT

This research studied factors underlying the greater export of Thailand to Middle East than the Indonesia?s export to that region. The objective is to study Thailand?s experiences in increasing its export to the region. The research method was qualitative by library research and interviewing. The result suggests that government enhance technological capability in industrial sector; employ strategic policies to boost the development of national industries; overcome issues in infrastructure, business environment and labor cost to strengthen economic competitiveness; institutionalize collaboration between government and private sector; optimize bilateral agreement to gain market access; allocate greater budget for promotion and trade mission."

"Tulisan ini membahas mengenai perkembangan gagasan proteksionisme di AS dari waktu ke waktu. Literatur-literatur yang ada akan dikelompokkan menggunakan metode kronologi ke dalam tiga periode berbeda, yaitu initial period, interwar period dan liberalization period with protectionism disjuncture. Dari perkembangan gagasan proteksionisme di dalam periode-periode tersebut, terlihat bahwa gagasan proteksionisme selalu hadir di AS, bahkan ketika AS menerapkan kebijakan liberalisasi perdagangan. Kemunculan proteksionisme tersebut juga selalu dilatarbelakangi oleh peristiwa- peristiwa besar, baik yang terjadi di dalam AS itu sendiri maupun dunia. Penulis melihat adanya preseden historis dari berlakunya proteksionisme di AS yakni wacana proteksionisme akan muncul ketika AS merasa memiliki tantangan eksternal yang dapat mengganggu kondisi dalam negeri AS. Pengelompokkan tersebut juga memperlihatkan tema-tema yang muncul di dalam pembahasan mengenai proteksionis yang memiliki kaitan erat dengan institusi, ide, kebijakan keamanan, dan kebijakan luar negeri AS. Tradisi populis AS turut berkontribusi dalam mendorong tindakan-tindakan proteksionis. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, proteksionisme menjadi gagasan yang dapat dianalisis dari berbagai faktor, mulai dari ekonomi, politik, keamanan, hingga ideologis. Akhirnya, ditemukan beberapa kesenjangan literatur yakni pertama, masih kurang dibahasnya aspek ide dan legal di dalam kajian mengenai proteksionisme dan kedua, masih belum ada literatur mengenai langkah-langkah untuk memitigasi proteksionisme selain dari sudut pandang perdagangan bebas.

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This paper discusses the development of protectionism idea from time to time. The literatures are classified using chronology method into three different periods, namely the initial period, interwar period and liberalization period with protectionism disjuncture. From the development of the idea of protectionism within those periods, it appears that the idea of protectionism is always present in the US, even when the US implements trade liberalization policies. The emergence of protectionism is motivated by major events, both within the US and the world. The author also sees a historical precedent regarding the emergence of protectionism in the US. Protectionist discourse also arises when US feels an external challenge that can disrupt domestic conditions in the US. The classifications also show some themes that emerge in the discussions on protectionism that are closely related to US institutions, ideas, security policies, and foreign policy. US populist tradition contributes to the promotion of protectionist measures taken by the government. Protectionism is not just a notion that can be analyzed from international political economy, but other factors, such as ideology, also matter to sustain the protectionism idea. By using contextual perspectives over time, this paper is expected to show how protectionism evolved as well as its relation to other aspects of international relations. Based on that, protectionism becomes an idea that can be analyzed from various factors, ranging from economic, political, security, to ideological. Finally, there are some literature gaps that can be found, which are firstly the lack of discussion about ideas and laws in the study of protectionism, and secondly, there is still no literature on measures to mitigate protectionism other than free trade."

"International trade is the life-blood of the countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Faced with several global trade issues the ASEAN countries individually and collectively pursue a multilateral approach by actively participating in the current Uruguay Round of GATT. The seven studies in this volume assess the strengths and weaknesses of international trading."

"[ABSTRAKSebagai negara maju dan anggota OECD, Australia merupakan negara yangsangat aktif berkontribusi dalam pembangunan internasional dan pemberantasankemiskinan melalui pemberian ODA (Official Development Assistance). Dalamrangka mengakselerasi tujuan ODA tersebut, Australia mengadopsi danmengintegrasikan kebijakan Aid for Trade (AfT) yang secara internasionaldiluncurkan pada WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 kedalam kebijakan bantuanluar negerinya pada tahun 2006. Kebijakan ini diambil dengan prinsip bahwanegara maju dapat membantu negara berkembang keluar dari kemiskinan denganmeningkatkan kapasitasnya dalam perdagangan internasional. Berbasis hal ini,sejak 2006, Australia mengimplementasikan kebijakan AfT dengan fokus regionaldi negara-negara ASEAN melalui bantuan infrastruktur, teknis, dan peningkatankapasitas dengan inisiatif Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and TransportFacilitation (GMS TTF), ASEAN Australia Development CooperationPartnership Phase II (AADCP II), dan ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FreeTrade Agreement Economic Cooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP).Berdasarkan hal ini, bila kebijakan AfT Australia ditujukan untuk membantunegara berkembang keluar dari kemiskinan, fokus regional Australia dalamkebijakannya tersebut dinilai timpang dengan kenyataan problematika kemiskinanyang lebih besar terjadi di kawasan lain seperti Afrika. Lebih daripada itu, jikadinilai dari aspek perdagangan internasional, tidak semua negara ASEANmerupakan mitra utama perdagangan dua arahnya. Hal ini menimbulkanpertanyaan mengapa ASEAN menjadi fokus dalam kebijakan AfT Australia ini.Penelitian ini ditujukan untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut dengan menilaiaspek kepentingan Australia dalam kebijakan luar negerinya terhadap ASEANdengan kerangka konsep geoekonomi. Dalam pembahasannya, metode kualitatifakan digunakan untuk menjelaskan kepentingan geoekonomi Australia dalamkebijakan AfT-nya di ASEAN (periode 2006-2014). Analisis kepentingangeoekonomi Australia ini kemudian didasarkan pada tiga hal, yakni: 1)konektivitas perdagangan internasional Australia lintas kawasan, dimana akanmembahas kepentingan Australia atas jalur perdagangan strategis di ASEAN yangmenghubungkannya kepada mitra dagang utamanya; 2) posisi Australia dalamarsitektur ekonomi regional yang akan mengkaji keterlibatan Australia dalamproses pembentukan dan pemanfaatan perjanjian perdagangan bebas baik bilateralmaupun regional, dimana kebijakan AfT Australia sebagai katalis dalam usahatersebut; dan 3) potensi ekonomi ASEAN bagi Australia di abad Asia denganpenekanan pada potensi demografi ASEAN dan relasi investasi asing langsung(Foreign Direct Investment/FDI) antara kedua pihak.

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ABSTRACT Australia, as developed country and member of OECD, is a country whichactively contributes to international development and poverty eradication effortsvia providing ODA (Official Development Assistance). In order to expedite thegoal of its ODA, Australia adopts and integrates the Aid for Trade (AfT) policywhich was internationally lauched at the WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 to itsaid policy in 2006. This policy was adopted with the principle of which developedcountries could assist developing countries to leave poverty by increasing theircapacity in international trade. Based on this, since 2006, Australia has beenimplementing AfT policy with regional focus towards ASEAN countries throughinfrastructure and technical assistance, as well as capacity building with theinitiatives of Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and Transport Facilitation (GMSTTF), ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Partnership Phase II (AADCPII), and ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement EconomicCooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP). In regards of this policy, ifAustralia’s AfT policy is directed to assist developing country to leave outpoverty, the regional focus of Australia is considered to be inappropriatepertaining to the fact that the problem of poverty is bigger in another region, suchas in Africa. Moreover, if it is considered from international trade aspect, it is notall of ASEAN countries which is the main two-way trading partner of Australia.This matter then rises question why ASEAN become the focus in Australia’s AfTpolicy.This research is adressed to answer that question by considering the aspectof Australia’s interest in its foreign policy towards ASEAN with the conceptualframework of geoeconomics. Inside of explanation, the qualitative methode wouldbe used to explain Australia’s geoeconomic interest in AfT policy in ASEAN(period of 2006-2014). The analysis of geoeconomic interest would then beestablished upon three things, which are: 1) the connectivity of Australia’sinternational trade across the region, which would explain Australia’s interestupon strategic trade pathways in ASEAN which connect Australia to its maintrade partner; 2) Australia’s position in the regional economic architecture, whichwould further analyze Australia’s engagement in the process of establishing andutilizing free trade agreement bilaterally an regionally by which the AfT policyplays a role as catalyst towards those efforts; and 3) the ASEAN economicpotential for Australia in the Asian century with the emphasis on demographicpotential of ASEAN as well as foreign direct investment (FDI) relation on bothparties., Australia, as developed country and member of OECD, is a country whichactively contributes to international development and poverty eradication effortsvia providing ODA (Official Development Assistance). In order to expedite thegoal of its ODA, Australia adopts and integrates the Aid for Trade (AfT) policywhich was internationally lauched at the WTO Hongkong Declaration 2005 to itsaid policy in 2006. This policy was adopted with the principle of which developedcountries could assist developing countries to leave poverty by increasing theircapacity in international trade. Based on this, since 2006, Australia has beenimplementing AfT policy with regional focus towards ASEAN countries throughinfrastructure and technical assistance, as well as capacity building with theinitiatives of Greater Mekong Subregion Trade and Transport Facilitation (GMSTTF), ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Partnership Phase II (AADCPII), and ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement EconomicCooperation Support Program (AAZNFTA ECSP). In regards of this policy, ifAustralia’s AfT policy is directed to assist developing country to leave outpoverty, the regional focus of Australia is considered to be inappropriatepertaining to the fact that the problem of poverty is bigger in another region, suchas in Africa. Moreover, if it is considered from international trade aspect, it is notall of ASEAN countries which is the main two-way trading partner of Australia.This matter then rises question why ASEAN become the focus in Australia’s AfTpolicy.This research is adressed to answer that question by considering the aspectof Australia’s interest in its foreign policy towards ASEAN with the conceptualframework of geoeconomics. Inside of explanation, the qualitative methode wouldbe used to explain Australia’s geoeconomic interest in AfT policy in ASEAN(period of 2006-2014). The analysis of geoeconomic interest would then beestablished upon three things, which are: 1) the connectivity of Australia’sinternational trade across the region, which would explain Australia’s interestupon strategic trade pathways in ASEAN which connect Australia to its maintrade partner; 2) Australia’s position in the regional economic architecture, whichwould further analyze Australia’s engagement in the process of establishing andutilizing free trade agreement bilaterally an regionally by which the AfT policyplays a role as catalyst towards those efforts; and 3) the ASEAN economicpotential for Australia in the Asian century with the emphasis on demographicpotential of ASEAN as well as foreign direct investment (FDI) relation on bothparties.]"

"Penggunaan kebijakan non-tarif atau non-tariff measures (NTMs) sangat beragam, salah satunya adalah technical barriers to trade (TBT) yang penggunaannya semakin intensif di banyak komoditas atau produk yang diperdagangkan. Salah satu penerapan technical barriers to trade ada pada ekspor tekstil dan produk tekstil, yang notabene merupakan salah satu penyumbang ekspor terbesar di Indonesia. Penelitian ini ingin menganalisis pengaruh dari penerapan kebijakan technical barriers to trade secara keseluruhan terhadap kinerja ekspor tekstil dan produk tekstil Indonesia. Penelitian ini menggunakan unit observasi komoditas tekstil dan produk tekstil ke 10 negara tujuan utama ekspor dengan kode Harmonized System (HS) 4 digit pada tahun 2018 dan pengaplikasian metode estimasi menggunakan Poisson-Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML). Penghitungan intensitas penggunaan TBT akan melalui pendekatan inventoris, yaitu dengan pengukuran menggunakan Coverage Ratio dan Frequency Index, sehingga dapat terlihat dampak intensitas penggunaan TBT terhadap ekspor tekstil dan produk tekstil. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa secara keseluruhan, penggunaan TBT yang diterapkan negara partner terhadap ekspor tekstil dan produk tekstil Indonesia justru memiliki efek mendorong perdagangan. Sehingga diekspektasikan bahwa penerapan TBT terhadap komoditas tekstil dan produk tekstil memiliki efek peningkatan permintaan.

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The use of non-tariff measures (NTMs) is very diverse, one of which is technical barriers to trade (TBT) whose use is increasingly intensive in many commodities or products being traded. One of the implementations of technical barriers to trade is in the export of textiles and textile products, which incidentally is one of the biggest contributors to exports in Indonesia. This study wants to analyse the effect of the implementation of the overall technical barriers to trade policy on the export performance of Indonesian textiles and textile products. This study uses the observation unit for textile commodities and textile products to the 10 main export destination countries with the 4-digit Harmonized System (HS) code in 2018 and the application of the estimation method using the PoissonPseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML). The calculation of the intensity of use of TBT will be through an inventory approach, namely by measuring using the Coverage Ratio and Frequency Index, so that the impact of the intensity of use of TBT on exports of textiles and textile products can be seen. The results of the study show that overall, the use of TBT by partner countries for exports of Indonesian textiles and textile products has the effect of encouraging trade. So, it is expected that the application of TBT to textile commodities and textile products will have a demand-enhancing effect."

"Mengapa pemerintah Indonesia di bawah Presiden Megawati menandatangani ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) pada tahun 2002? Penelitian ini berusaha untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut dengan melihat relasi kuasa yang terjadi antara bisnis dan negara dalam proses formulasi ACFTA. Untuk melakukan hal tersebut, penelitian ini menggunakan kerangka teoretis yang dikembangkan oleh Storm C. Thacker yang memperhitungkan kerentanan, kepentingan dan institusi, serta inisiatif negara sebagaimana leverage, strategi, dan komposisi internal bisnis. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa meskipun di satu sisi ACFTA menguntungkan bisnis besar yang mengekspor komoditas mereka ke China, kebijakan ini membahayakan industri kecil dan menengah yang bersaing secara langsung dengan komoditas yang diimpor dari China. Distribusi pendapatan yang tidak merata ini menyebabkan bisnis terbelah menjadi dua kelompok: mereka yang mendukung dan mereka yang menolak ACFTA. Sementara itu, di sisi negara, pembelahan secara praktis tidak terjadi, karena dua kepentingan yang ada di dalam negara, kelompok teknokrat dan kepentingan bisnis, mempunyai agenda yang sama di dalam ACFTA. Adalah simpulan utama dari penelitian ini bahwa koalisi antara bisnis besar dan negara lah yang secara efektif telah menentukan sikap resmi Indonesia terhadap ACFTA.

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Why did Indonesian government under Megawati’s presidency sign the ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) in 2002? This research attempts to anwer that question by looking at the underlying power relations between the state and businesses during ACFTA formulation process. In doing so, this research employs a theoretical framework developed by Storm C. Thacker which takes into account vulnerabilities, institutions and interests, and initiatives of the state as well as businesses’ leverages, strategies, and their internal makeup. The research finds that while ACFTA benefited Indonesian big businesses which exported their commodities to China, it harmed small and medium businesses who competed directly with commodities imported from China. This uneven income distribution consequently splited businesses into two divisions; those who supported and those who opposed ACFTA. Meanwhile, on the state’s side, the division was virtually nonexistent as the two main interests within the state, the technocrats and the business interest, had a converging agenda in ACFTA. It is the main conclusion of this research that this powerful state-big businesses coalition that had effectively determined Indonesia’s formal stance toward ACFTA."