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"It is sometimes thought that a comedy is a play which makes us shake with laughter and that a tragedy is a play at the end of which we will have swollen eyes and lots of wet handkerchiefs. This superficial idea of comedy and tragedy is only partly true, for a comedy is not only meant to excite laughter, nor is a tragedy merely performed to make us cry. Both comedy and tragedy, especially Shakespearian comedy and tragedy are written with a purpose other than that of making us laugh or weep. T he term Shakespearian indicates a play written by William Shakespeare of Stratford-on- Avon, and since drama is in Hamlet's words to hold the mirror up to Nature, to show virtue her own feature... it should help people to see them-selves as they really are. Drama should also reveal to them their virtues and vices.Comedy has been said to be beneficial because it:1.cures us of our follies by exposing them on the stage, 2. affords us a chance to laugh at our neighbours. Heywood, cited by Northrop Frye, defines the dual function of comedy as being to reform and to refresh, by which it is clear that, aside from evoking laughter, comedy also reforms. Comedy imi_tates the joys of social life and the follies of those who stubbornly try to maintain their own ridiculous ways against society. The joy of social life is usually manifested in a wedding or a happy reunion at the end of the play. The ten_dency of comedy is to include as many people as possible in its final society, the blocking characters are more often reconciled or converted than simply repudiated."

"'The poet or the novelist can proceed as long as he has pen, ink, and paper, but the dramatist must have players, a stage, and an audience.' A good playwright, if he wants to be successful, must consider his audience. :arlowe'e and Shakespeare's audience was a very miscellaneous one. 'The average :_lieabethan audience ranged from noblemen, like the young Earl of Southampton, who were daily frequenters of playhouses, to the rabble of apprentice and cutpurecs, who cracked nuts and fought for bitten apples in the pit.' According to : ,en Joneon, a popular playwright had to present something which would: 'Be fit for ladies, some for lords, knights, 'squires; Some for your waiting wench and city wires; Some for your men and daughters of Whitefriare.' (Prologue to : picoene).13th '.arlowe and ,_;hakespeare tried to satisfy their own artistic impulse as well as the different tastes of their audience. A section among the audience, which was called the groundlings, had a great influence on the provision of the comic scenes in - arlowe' e and ahakespeare's tragedies, They were the less educated and less sophisticated masses among the playgoers. -`arce was very much appreciated by these people, even if it was in a tragedy. ='igures like .agner or the horse-courser in :'tau tue, the servants of L,enocrate and ,abina in ,Tanburlaine, or the gravediggers in Hamlet and the porter in ,:acbeth and :ad Tom in Lear were familiar to them from their daily lif..."

"Dunia O'Neill jang kita batja hampir selalu merupakan suatu lukisan jang tidak gembira dari dunia sekelilingnja. Dunia O'Neill ini adalah tempat bagi mereka jang kesepian, penuh frustrasi dan tanpa pegangan - dimana manusia menemui kegagalan untuk mengerti satu sama lain - dimana manusia mendambakan tjinta, pengertian dan simpati dimana manusia adalah korban dari kelemahan2-nja sendiri.Suasana konflik jang tak berkeputusan antara manusia dan alam sekelilingnja, antara sesama manusia dan konflik didalam diri manusia sendiri meliputi drama2-nja. Lianusia didalam karja O'Neill digambarkan sebagai machluk jang tidak berbahagia, selamanja berdjuang untuk mendapatkan suatu tempat jang pasti dan lajak didunia dan berusaha untuk memperoleh ketenteraman batin. Tetapi manusia lemah dalam menghadapi daja2 diluar dirinja dan banjak sedikitnja mereka adalah korban dari konflik2 di_dalam dirinja sendiri.Apakah sebenarnja maksud O'Neill dengan membawakan pada pembatjanja suatu dunia jang suram sebagaimana jang dilukiskan oleh drama2-nja? Apakah O'Neill bermaksud supaja kita menjadari bahwa dunia tiada lain hanja suatu perdjuangan jang sia2 untuk wentjapai kebahagiaan-konflik jang tak henti2-nja dan frustrasi - perdjuangan.

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The world that Eugene O'Neill has always tried to bring forth to us through his plays is mostly a sad one, a dark and brooding interpretation of the world. It is the world where men suffer from loneliness, frustration and a sense of insecurity - where men often fail to under-stand or communicate with each other - where men are craving for love, sympathy and understanding - where men are victims to their own weakness or flaw of character. The atmosphere of never ending conflicts between Man and Nature, between Man and Man, between Man and himself - the ever present struggle of man to escape the unpleasant realities of his life overwhelms his plays. Man in O'Neill's plays is depicted as an unhappy creature, constantly fighting for a firm stand in the world, striving to gain a feeling of security. But man is weak against the forces working outside him _and he is more or less liable to the forces working in him_his own inner conflicts. What is actually O'Neill's purpose in presenting us such a gloomy world? Does he want to make us see that this world is nothing but futile fighting for happiness - constant conflicts leading to frustration -- desperate struggle to free oneself from the clutch of Fate - that men going through the storm of life are provided with_"

"When we review the theatre in its development from the Elizabethan age to the Restoration period, we find that the playhouse changes from one exposed to the open air, dependent for its illumination on the capricious daylight and not altogether protected from the noise from outside, to one covered by a roof. In this covered playhouse, intimacy is secured. Acting took place within an enclosed space. The light of the candles used in the Restoration theatre would have provided an atmosphere of enchantment for an Elizabethan audience used to daylight performances. Whilst the attention of an Elizabethan audience might wander away from the stage-because in the bright light the spectators could see many other things besides the stage, including one another--the attention of the Restoration audience could remain focussed on the stage. We have seen that the scenery was being used on the Elizabethan masque atages and this was also adopted in the Restoration public theatre. It had not. however, yet come to represent an imitation of real life. Scenery was still only used as colourful decoration of the acting area. According to Richard Southern, this refusal to make of the stage a reproduction of reality, should not be interpreted as 'crudeness', a failure on the part of the Restoration stage managers to exploit the potentialities of the scenic stage. They deliberately kept it 'crude', because they realised the difficulties involved in giving a realistic presentation. The Restoration stage, though it included scenery, was fundamentally the same platform stage of the Elizabethan period. It was still a long way from the modern 'picture frame' stage, which often strives to give the stage an illusion of reality. It was only in the nineteenth century that in most productions the apron finally disappeared. The acting was essentially the same in both periods. We noted that the actors of both periods used the 'acted speech' technique, where the speech was also enacted physically, i.e. by gestures and facial expression. Consequently the texts written by the dramatists_"

"The appearance of Revenge Tragedy in Elizabethan Drama - Looking at the historical development of English Drama, we see that the tragic plays of the Elizabethan and Jacobean period are fre_quently concerned with revenge. Plays of this genre reflect man's tendency to defy God's beneficent will. It can be said that the revenge plays have in common a criticism of life, and are in a way a warning to men to choose good rather than evil. The dramatic theme of revenge proved to be popular in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, because it appeal_ed to the Elizabethan and Jacobean taste for Grand Guignol 1/ - a taste shared by some cinema and theatrical audiences today. Apart from this, Elizabethan and Jacobean playgoers were very eager to witness the revelation of peculiar states of mind and these could nowhere be seen except in plays of this kind.Foreign elements - The Elizabethan and Jacobean plays of revenge are not however entirely original in conception. Their authors_"

"So we have seen that the Breton Lay of 'Sir Orfeo' follows the conventions of medieval courtly-love poetry, except for one feuture,nwnely that hero and heroine are husband and wife. lhi s, however , i. s not an Innovation of the noet's;it was taken from the classical version of the story.Aa a story 'Sir Orfeo' is well told,although I suggest that the churacters,by virtue of the reasons postulated on pages 25 and 2o,ure flat.In the F'rankli n' a Tule,Chuucer has also used the earlier,he uses them in a different way.As a story the Franklin's Wale is also good,and in its plot,as has al-ready been ahown,each event has a cause;the characters especially that of Dorigene,can he said to he round; the supernatural element,?nagic,i.s explained in detail. The explanation might not be a scientific one,but at least it is explained, whereas in 'Sir Orfeo' it is not. The courtly-love conventions too are used to servo a certain purpose,nwnely to illustrate Chats cer's views about marriage relationships..."