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"At the end of world war II the allies faced a threefold challenge: how to punish perpetrators of appalling crimes for which the categories of genocide and crimes against humanity had to be coined; how to explain that these had been committed by Germany, of all nations; and how to reform Germans. The answer to this triple conundrum was the application of historical reasoning to legal procedure. In the Nuremberg trials held between 1945 and 1949, a concerted effort was made to punish key perpetrators while at the same time analysing the Nazi state and recounting German history. Building on a long debate about Germanys divergence from a presumed Western path of development, Allied prosecutors sketched out how Germany had betrayed the Western model. The prosecutors laid out how private enterprise, academic science, the military, and the civil service, which looked ostensibly similar to their opposite numbers in the Allied nations, had been corrupted in Germany even before Hitlers rise to power. While the argument, depending on individual protagonists, subject matters, and contexts, met with uneven success in court, it offered a final twist against the backdrop of the Cold War: although Germany had lost its way, it could still be brought back into the Western fold. The first comprehensive study of the Nuremberg trials, The Betrayal explores this process and sheds light on how history underpins transitional trials as we encounter them in todays courtrooms from Arusha to The Hague."

"ABSTRAKDoktrin State responsibility merupakan salah satu doktrin penting dalam hukum internasional yang terus berkembang hingga saat ini. Inti dari pengertian doktrin State responsibility adalah bahwa setiap aksi yang dilakukan oleh negara ataupun organ-organ resmi negara harus dipertanggung jawabkan dan memiliki konsekuensi hukum dalam hubungan antar negara di kancah internasional. Lahirnya konsekuensi atas setiap aksi daripada negara bertujuan untuk memastikan bahwa negara mentaati ketentuan hukum internasional serta memberi keadilan bagi subjek hukum internasional yang mengalami kerugian atas tindakan suatu negara. Penelitian ini kemudian bertujuan untuk meneliti apakah dalam kasus kejahatan perang war crimes tentara Belanda di Indonesia pada periode 1945-1949 khususnya di daerah Rawagede dan Sulawesi Selatan , doktrin State responsibility dapat digunakan untuk menganalilis pertanggung jawaban Pemerintah Belanda kepada korban maupun keluarga korban. Pisau analisis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah parameter pelanggaran hukum internasional yang dilakukan dalam tindakan kejahatan perang tentara Belanda dan atribusi kejahatan perang tersebut kepada Pemerintah Belanda sehingga Pemerintah Belanda memiliki tanggung jawab yang diatur dalam hukum internasional. Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah dilihat dari kedua analisis tersebut, tindakan tentara Belanda merupakan tindakan yang melanggar hukum internasional dan dapat diatribusikan kepada Pemerintah Belanda, sehingga Pemerintah Belanda memiliki tanggung jawab hukum kepada korban atau keluarga korban untuk memberikan reparasi reparation atas tindakan tentaranya.

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ABSTRACTState responsibility is an important doctrine that keeps on developing in international law. The definition of state responsibility is that every action conducted by nations or its legitimate organs entails international responsibility and has legal consequences in the eyes of international law. The purpose of this doctrine is to ensure that nations will abide by international law and also give access to justice for victims that got harmed through certain nations rsquo action. This research then focused on analyzing whether State responsibility doctrine can be applicable in the case of war crimes conducted by Dutch soldiers in Indonesia spesifically in Rawagede and South Sulawesi during 1945 1949 period Indonesia rsquo s revolution war . The writer uses two main points of analysis in analyzing whether state responsibility can be applicable in that case. The first one is whether the actions conducted by Dutch military troops were in violation of international law, the second one is whether the action can be attributed to Dutch Government so that the Dutch Government bears responsibility towards the victims and family of victims. The conclusion of this research is that according to State responsibility doctrine, the Dutch Government is responsible towards the war crimes conducted by Dutch military troops in Indonesia during 1945 1949 in Rawagede and South Sulawesi and entitled to give reparation for victims or family of victims. "

"Kekalahan Jerman pada Perang Dunia II memberikan dampak buruk bagi masyarakat dan negaranya. Dampak yang muncul diantaranya adalah denazifikasi, keharusan membayar ganti rugi, kesulitan ekonomi, serta ketidakberdayaan masyarakat. Kesulitan untuk melayangkan kritik pun membuat masyarakat Jerman terpaksa menerima kebijakan sekutu. Meski begitu, Jerman berusaha bangkit dari keterpurukannya ketika mengalami kekalahan perang untuk kedua kalinya. Melalui penelitian ini, penulis mendiskusikan bagaimana cerpen “Die schwarzen Schafe” digunakan oleh Heinrich Böll dalam menampilkan kondisi Jerman Barat saat kalah Perang Dunia II. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan pendekatan sosiologi sastra. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Böll mengisahkan kehidupan tokoh utama di dalam cerpen, seorang kambing hitam, sebagai sebuah metafora untuk menampilkan kondisi Jerman Barat tepat saat kalah Perang Dunia II. Böll menampilkan kondisi masyarakat yang mengalami kesulitan ekonomi, dijauhkan dari lingkungan tempat tinggal mereka sendiri, dan nyaris kehilangan harapan akibat ketidakberdayaan mereka. Selain itu, perang tidak hanya berdampak pada masyarakat yang merasakan peperangan dan yang selamat setelahnya, tetapi juga akan berdampak pada generasi selanjutnya.

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The defeat of Germany in World War II has had a negative influence on the country and society. Denazification, the necessity to pay reparations, economic hardships, and societal impotence are some of the consequences. The German people were also constrained to accept the Allies' policies since it was difficult to criticize them. Nonetheless, Germany attempted to recover from the agony of a second war defeat. Through this research, the author discusses how Heinrich Böll used the short story "Die schwarzen Schafe" to depict West Germany's condition after World War II. The qualitative descriptive method is used in this research, together with a sociology of literature approach. The findings reveal that Böll uses the life of the main character in the short story, a black sheep, as a metaphor for West Germany at the time it lost World War II. Through this short story, Böll depicts the condition of people who are experiencing economic difficulty, are alienated from their own environment, and have nearly given up hope due to their inability to defend themselves. Furthermore, war will have an impact not only on those who lived through the conflict and those who survived, but also on future generations."