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"The development of new materials with both organic and inorganic structures is of great interest to obtain special material properties. Chitosan [2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucan] can be obtained by N-deacetylation of chitin. Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer in nature and the supporting material of crustaceans, insects, fungi etc. Chitosan is a unique polysaccharide and has been widely used in various biomedical application due to its biocompatibility, low toxicity, biodegradability, non-immunogenic and non-carcinogenic character. In the past years, chitosan and some of its modifications have been reported for use in biomedical applications such as artificial skin, wound dressing, anticoagulant, suture, drug delivery, vaccine carrier and dietary fibers. Recently, the use of chitosan and its derivatives has received much attention as temporary scaffolding to promotie mineralization or stimulate endochondral ossification. This article aims to give a broad overview of chitosan and its clinical applications as biomaterial."

"ABSTRAKProses ekstraksi kitin di industri dilakukan secara kimiawi, proses ini dapat memberikan dampak negatif terhadap kualitas kitin, peralatan dan lingkungan. Akhir-akhir ini penelitian ekstraksi kitin secara biologis banyak dikembangkan. Ekstraksi kitin secara biologis telah banyak diteliti, baik melalui sistem fermentasi batch atau subsequent-batch. Proses demineralisasi dan deproteinasi secara kontinyu merupakan inovasi baru dalam teknologi produksi kitin secara biologis, serta dapat mengatasi kekurangan pada sistem fermentasi batch maupun proses kimiawi.Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk mendapatkan kondisi optimum proses demineralisasi dan deproteinasi kulit udang vannamei (P. vannamei) secara kontinyu, menggunakan mikroba Lactobacillus acidophilus FNCC 116 dan Bacillus licheniformis F11.1. Prosedur penelitian dibagi dalam beberaba tahapan. Tahap pertama, pada 12 jam pertama dilakukan demineralisasi secara batch, dilanjutkan demineralisasi secara kontinyu selama 36 jam. Tahap kedua, pada 24 jam pertama dilakukan deproteinasi batch, dilanjutkan deproteinasi kontinyu selama 72 jam.Hasil percobaan menunjukkan bahwa kondisi terbaik untuk proses demineralisasi secara kontinyu, adalah umpan glukosa 6,5% dan waktu tinggal 16 jam. Untuk proses deproteinasi secara kontinyu adalah waktu tinggal 12 jam. Dengan proses ini dapat menghilangkan abu 92.95% dan protein 91.40%. Kandungan kitin, abu, dan protein pada produk kitin adalah 96.69%, 1.44% dan 1,76%.

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ABSTRACTChitin extraction in industry, has been conducted by chemical process. The process has been known as a harsh treatment that badly affected to chitin quality, equipment and the environment. Since the last decade biologically chitin extraction has more attracted attention. The biologically chitin extraction was conducted by batch fermentation or subsequent-batch fermentation. Continous demineralization and deproteinization is a new inovation on biologically chitin production technology. This system promises as an alternative technology for overcoming problems of batch fermentation process and chemical process.The objectives of the experiment was to obtain the optimal condition for continous deminineralization and deproteinization of vannamei (P. vannamei) shrimp shells. Lactobacillus acidophilus FNCC 116 and Bacillus licheniformis F11.1 was used for demineralization and deproteination process respectively. The experiment was divided into several steps. The first step was batch demineralization that was conducted for 12 hours, then was followed by continuous demineralization for 36 hours. The second step was batch deproteinization for 24 hours, and was followed by continuous deproteinization for 72 hours.The results showed that the best condition for continuous demineralization was 6,5% glucose feed, with 16 hours retention time. For continuous deproteinization, the best condition was with 12 hours retention time. The process could remove 92.95% ash and 91.40% protein. The chitin, ash, and protein content of chitin product was 96.69%, 1.44% and 1,76% respectively."

"Skripsi ini membahas proses dan jumlah kitosan yang diproduksi dari cangkang rajungan dan cangkang kepiting hijau, karakterisasi kitosan, dan pengujian kitosan sebagai koagulan jika dibandingkan dengan koagulan PAC (Poly Aluminum Chloride) untuk menjernihkan air sungai Kalimalang. Jumlah kitosan yang diproduksi dari cangkang kepiting hijau sebesar 12.34 gram dari 420 gram cangkang kepiting kering, dan sebesar 21 gram dari 300 gram cangkang rajungan kering. Faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan sedikitnya jumlah kitosan di dalam pembuatan dijelaskan di dalam skripsi ini. Karakterisasi kitosan didapat melalui pengukuran kandungan nitrogen dan derajat deasetilasi. Besar kandungan nitrogen yang didapat dari kitosan cangkang kepiting hijau, kitosan cangkang rajungan produksi 1 dan kitosan cangkang rajungan produksi 2 adalah 6.208 %, 5.5656 %, dan 5.288 %. Besar derajat deasetilasi secara berturut-turut adalah: 53.47 %, 20.57 %, 53.32 %. Penggunaan kitosan sebagai koagulan diuji dengan menggunakan metode Jar Test dibandingkan dengan PAC. Air sampel didapat dari air sungai Kalimalang dengan tingkat kekeruhan sekitar 947 NTU. Efisiensi dosis optimum cangkang kepiting hijau, cangkang rajungan produksi 1, cangkang rajungan produksi 2, dan PAC secara berturut-turut adalah 8, 40, 50, dan 50 ppm. Efisiensi removal mencapai 99 % untuk semua koagulan untuk menurunkan kekeruhan hingga batas di bawah 5 NTU. Selain itu, juga dilakukan penelitian untuk mencoba penggabungan kitosan dengan PAC dalam mengkoagulasi dan flokulasi. Kemampuan kitosan untuk mengkoagulasi juga dipengaruhi oleh nilai pH, dimana pH optimum bagi kitosan untuk mengkoagulasi air sungai Kalimalang adalah pada daerah pH netral dengan batas sekitar 7.5.

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The focus of study are discuss about the process and amount of chitosan produced from blue crab shell and mud crab shell, characterization of chitosan, and observe chitosan effectiveness as coagulant compared with PAC (Poly Aluminum Chloride) in clarifying Kalimalang river. The amounts of chitosan produced from mud crab shell are 12.34 gram from 420 gram dry mud crab shell, and 21 gram from 300 gram blue crab shell. Factors affecting amount of chitosan produced explained in this study. Chitosan characterization obtained from measurement of nitrogen content and degree of deacetylation. Nitrogen content from mud crab shell chitosan, blue crab shell chitosan 1, and blue crab shell chitosan 2 are 6.208 %, 5.5656 %, dan 5.288 %. Degrees of deacetylation for each chitosan are 53.47 %, 20.57 %, 53.32 %. Performance of chitosan as coagulant measured using Jar Test method compared with PAC. Water sample obtained from Kalimalang river with turbidity 947 NTU. Optimum dose for chitosan from mud crab shell, blue crab shell 1, blue crab shell 2, and PAC are 8, 40, 50, and 50 ppm. Removal efficiencies reached to 99 % for all type of coagulant, reduced turbidity to the limit under 5 NTU. Furthermore the research also tried to integrate chitosan with PAC in coagulation and flocculation. Chitosan performance in coagulation affected by pH value, where optimum pH for chitosan to coagulate Kalimalang river water sample at neutral pH range with upper limit about 7.5."

"Kitin dan kitosan memiliki gugus amina yang bermuatan positif pada rantai sampingnya. Kesamaan struktur kitin dan kitosan dengan DEAE selulosa membuat kedua polimer tersebut berpotensi digunakan sebagai matriks penukar ion untuk fraksinasi protein. Hasil fraksinasi serum dengan matriks kitin dan kitosan dibandingkan dengan hasil fraksinasi dengan matriks  DEAE selulosa. Serum darah sapi diifraksinasi dengan kromatografi kolom dnegan matriks kitin kitosan dan DEAE selulosa dengan fase gerak PBS Ph 7,4, bufer fosfat Ph 6,5 Dan dapar Tris Ph 8,5. Fraksi IgG diuji dengan elektroforesis selulosa asetat, elektroforesis gel poliakrilamida dan imunodifusi radial. fraksinasi degan matriks kitin dan kitosan menunjukkan pola yang sama dengan matriks DEAE selulosa. Hasil elektroforesis gel poliakrilamid menunjukkan adanya pita IgG pada fraksi kitin, kitosan dan DEAE selulosa dengan fase gerak PBS pH 7,4 dan dapar fosfat pH 6,5. Namun hasil fraksinasi dengan dapar tris pH 8,5 tidak menunjukkan adanya pita IgG. Hasil uji dengan imunodifusi radial menunjukkan adanya IgG dengan konsentrasi terbanyak pada fraksi kitosan dengan fase gerak PBS pH 7,4. Kitin dan kitosan berpotensi digunakan sebagai Matriks penukar ion untuk fraksinasi protein serum darah sapi. Fraksi terbaik adalah fraksi kitosan degan fase gerak PBS pH 7,4.

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Chitin and chitosan are polymers that naturally have N group on the side chain. The similarity structure between chitin, chitosan and DEAE-cellulose make the two polymer potentially used as ion-exchange matrix to fractionation of blood serum. Bovine serum was fractionated by column chromatography with chitin chitosan matrix and DEAE-cellulose with PBS pH 7.4, Phosphate buffer with pH 6.5 and tris buffer pH 8.5. The IgG fraction was tested by cellulose acetate electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and radial immunodiffusion.the results of fractionation using chitin and chitosan matrix showed the same pattern as DEAE-cellulose matrix. The results of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed the presence of IgG bands in the chitin, chitosan and DEAE-cellulose fractions with PBS mobile phase pH 7.4 and phosphate buffer pH 6.5. However, the results of fractionation with tris buffer pH 8.5 did not show any IgG bands. The test results with radial immunodiffusion showed the presence of IgG with the highest concentration in the chitosan fraction with PBS mobile phase pH 7.4. Chitin and chitosan have potential as ion exchange matrix for protein fractionation of bovine serum. chitosan matrix with PBS pH 7.4 mobile phase show the best fraction."

"Material Kitosan dibuat dari cangkang kepiting menggunakan metode kimia dengan demineralisasi HCL 1M selama 1 jam, deproteinasi NaOH 1M selama 2 jam dan variasi deasetilasi NaOH 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, dan 70% selama 45 menit. Dari analisis FTIR didapat Derajat Deasetilasi kitosan terbaik pada NaOH 50%. Waktu reaksi terbaik untuk mendapatkan Derajat Deasetilasi maksimum dalah 30 menit. Hasil kitosan cangkang kepiting merupakan kitosan murni sesuai dengan database program Match!. Adsorbsi Pb dari larutan Pb(NO3)2 dilakukan pada konsentrasi Pb 10, 50, dan 100 ppm dengan pengadukan selama 30 menit. Dalam suasana asam Kitosan menyerap seluruh Pb untuk konsentrasi 10 ppm dan tidak menyerap Pb pada konsetrasi 50 dan 100 ppm. Sedangkan dalam suasana netral konsentrasi Pb 25 ppm terserap semua, pada konsetrasi 50 ppm terserap 44,77 ppm dan pada konsentrasi Pb 100 ppm terserap 97,04 ppm.

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Chitosan has been made from the crab shells with a chemical method with 1M HCl demineralization for 1 hour, deproteination 1M NaOH for 2 hours and variations of deacetylation 30% NaOH, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% for 45 minutes. An analytical methode from FTIR showed that the best chitosan deacetylation degree obtained at 50% NaOH, and the best reaction time to get the best Chitosan is 30 minutes. Chitosan product from crab shells is a real chitosan agreed with database Match! program. Chitosan is known best Pb adsorption from Pb(NO3)2 solution with concentrations of 10, 50, and 100 ppm acid delution and neutral dilution of 25, 50, and 100 ppm for 30 minutes and tested variations chitosan residual liquid. Chitosan absorbed around 10 ppm Pb acid dilution and 25 ppm neutral dilution. No adsorption at 50 and 100 ppm Pb in acid dilution. Absorption of 44.77 ppm at 50 ppm and 97.04 ppm to 100 ppm."

"Kelebihan kandungan ion fluorida dalam air berpotensi mencemari badan air terutama apabila badan air tersebut digunakan sebagai bahan baku air minum. Dengan mengkonsumsi air minum yang memiliki kandungan ion fluorida berlebih dapat menyebabkan berbagai macam masalah kesehatan seperti fluorosis gigi dan tulang. Pada penelitian ini, kitosan telah dimodifikasi dengan penambahan praseodimium (Pr3+) sebagai adsorben untuk menyerap ion fluorida dalam air minum. Penambahan praseodimium bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kinerja penyerapan ion fluorida oleh kitosan. Dari hasil karakterisasi FTIR diketahui keberadaan praseodimium yang berikatan dengan gugus aktif pada kitosan dan hasil SEM-EDX juga membuktikan adanya praseodimium yang terikat pada permukaan kitosan. Proses adsorpsi dilakukan dengan menggunakan larutan ion fluorida 20 mg/L pada pH 7. Kondisi optimum untuk loading praseodimium dalam kitosan diperoleh pada konsentrasi praseodimium sebesar 1 g/L dengan efisiensi adsorpsi ion fluorida sebesar 72% dan kapasitas adsorpsi 7,2 mg/g. Pada uji adsorpsi diperoleh waktu kontak optimum antara adsorbat dengan adsorben berlangsung selama 60 menit dengan jumlah adsorben yang ditambahkan sebesar 0,1 g. Adanya anion kompetitor seperti Cl-, NO3 -,CO3 2- dan SO4 2- menyebabkan menurunnya efisiensi penyerapan ion fluorida menjadi 68,65%, 64,75%, 33,50% dan 58,70%. Model isoterm adsorpsi yang sesuai adalah isoterm Langmuir dan kinetika adsorpsi mengikuti pseudo orde kedua.

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Excess content of fluoride ion in water potentially polluted the water bodies especially if water bodies are used as raw material for drinking water. Consuming drinking water that contains excess fluoride ion can cause a wide range of health problems such as dental fluorosis and bone. In this study, chitosan has been modified by the addition of praseodymium (Pr3+) as an adsorbent to absorb fluoride ions in drinking water. The addition of praseodymium aims to improve the performance of fluoride ion uptake by chitosan.

The result from FTIR characterization, note the presence of praseodymium binds to the active group on chitosan and SEM-EDX results also prove the existence of praseodymium on the surface of chitosan. Adsorption process is done using fluoride ion solution 20 mg/L at pH 7. The optimum conditions for loading of praseodymium on chitosan obtained at concentrations of praseodymium 1 g/L for efficiency adsorption of fluoride ion by 72% and the adsorption capacity of 7.2 mg/g. In the adsorption test obtained the optimum contact time between adsorbate with adsorbent lasted for 60 minutes with the amount of adsorbent was added at 0.1 g. Presence of competitor anions such as Cl-, NO3 -,CO3 2- dan SO4 2- were caused decrease in the efficiency adsorption of fluoride ion to be 68.65%, 64.75%, 33.50% and 58.70%. The bestfit adsorption model adsorption isotherms are Langmuir isotherm and the adsorption kinetics followed pseudo second order."

"Pembentukan mikrosfer kitosan-sodium tripolifosfat (TPP) dengan metode gelasi ionotropik, parasetamol digunakan sebagai model obat. Mikrosfer obat-kitosan- TPP menunjukkan profil rilis yang bersifat pH independen yang terlihat pada nilai rilis kumulatif pada buffer pH 1,2 dan 7,4. Terdapat fenomena yang berbeda pada rilis mikrosfer di buffer pH 4 yang mengindikasikan terbentuknya konjugasi kitosan-ptalat karena tingginya rilis pada pH tersebut. Mikrosfer yang dibuat dengan larutan TPP pH 8,6 memiliki rilis yang paling tinggi dibandingkan mikrosfer yang dibuat pada pH TPP lainnya. Mikrosfer yang dibuat dengan TPP pH 7 menunjukkan nilai efisiensi enkapsulasi dan loading yang paling baik dibandingkan mikrosfer yang dibuat pada pH TPP lainnya. Hasil penelitian ini mengindikasikan mikrosfer kitosan-TPP dapat menjadi senyawa pelepasan terkendali yang potensial untuk obat.

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Ionotropic gelation based Chitosan-Sodium Tripolyphosphate (TPP) microsphere preparation was used as the method in this research, using paracetamol as a model drug. Drug-chitosan-TPP microspheres show pH independent cumulative release properties in release tests using pH 1.2 and 7.4 buffer. Different phenomenon was found in buffer pH 4 release test which indicates that a reaction occurred between chitosan and phthalate ions which formed chitosan-phthalate conjugates for the high release profiles occurred at that pH. Microspheres which are cross-linked in pH 8.6 TPP solution shows the highest release than microspheres which cross- linked in other pH TPP solutions. pH 7 TPP solutions cross-linked microspheres show the highest encapsulation efficiency and loading than other pH TPP solutions cross-linked microspheres. These results indicate that chitosan-TPP microspheres may become a potential delivery system to control the release of drug."

"Pengobatan penyakit Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) dapat dilakukan dengan penghantaran obat ke kolon.Peradangan kronis memainkan peran penting terjadinya fibrosis.Deksametason merupakan obat yang memiliki efek anti inflamasi dan antifibrosis.Deksametason akan di mikroenkapsulasi ke dalam beads kitosan dengan metode gelasi ionik menggunakan natrium tripolifosfat (NaTPP) sebagai penaut silang. Kemudian Beads kitosan-tpp dilakukan penyalutan menggunakan 10% Eudragit®S100 (Poly (methacylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate) 1:2). Beads yang dihasilkan kemudian dikarakterisasi menggunakan Scanning Electron Microscope(SEM) dan ayakan bertingkat. Uji kandungan obat, efisiensi penjerapan deksametason dalam beads dan pelepasan obat ditetapkan kadar obatnya secara spektrofotometri. Hasil dari uji kandungan obat sebesar 19,39%; 18,55%, 16,25% dan 10,12%. Sedangkan efisiensi penjerapan diperoleh 77,59%; 74,23%; 65,03% dan 40,49%. Pada uji pelepasan obat pada medium HCl pH 1,2 ; dapar fosfat pH 7 dan dapar fosfat pH 6 diperoleh hasil untuk beads yang disalut dengan Eudragit® S100 dimana pelepasan pada kolon sebanyak 78,91 % pada jam ke-24. Sehingga sediaan ini dapat dimungkinkan untuk digunakan sebagai obat target pada kolon dengan pelepasan bertahap.

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The treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) may be carried out by drug delivery to the colon. Chronic inflammation plays an important role occurrence of fibrosis. Dexamethasone is a drug that has anti-inflammatory effects and antifibrosis. Dexamethasone was microencapsulated into chitosan beads by ionic gelation method using sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as across-linker. Then chitosan-TPP Beads were coated by 10% Eudragit ®S100(Poly (methacylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate) 1:2). The resulting beads were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and multilevel sieve. Drug content, encapsulation efficiency of dexamethasone and drug release determined by spectrophotometry UV-Vis. The resultsof the drug content testare19,39%, 18,55%,16,25% and 10,12% while the efficiency of the encapsulation are 77,59%, 74,23%,65,03% and 40,49%. The results of drug release test in medium HCl pH 1.2, phosphate buffer pH 7 and pH 6 found that beads coated with Eudragit® S100 were released in the colon obtained 78,91% occurs at the 24 hours.It is obviously clear that this dosage form can be used as drug targets in the colon with sustained release."

"Chitosan can be prepared in the form of microspheres that serve as a depot for bioactive compounds released in a controlled way to diseased organs. In this study, a mathematical model of potassium chloride release from chitosan microspheres was developed. The model was validated using experimental data. The potassium chloride-loading percentages of 10.01%, 20.84%, and 20.57% were prepared using a cross-linking method. The potassium chloride loading was kept constant at about 20% when the potassium chloride mass in the preparation stage was above 5.024 mg/mL. Experiments and a model calculation of potassium chloride release from the microspheres with a loading of 10.01% and 20.57% were performed. In general, the model reproduces the experimental data. The experiments and the calculation show that during the same period, microspheres containing more potassium chloride release a higher percentage of potassium chloride than do microspheres containing less potassium chloride."