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ABSTRACT
This study uses historical analyses to offer recommendations on developing the international competitives of Japan's petroleum industry. The choice was made to focus on historical processes in discusing this contemporary subject, as this study uses applied business history to perform analyses

Abstrak :
While the number of occupations known as "professions" has increased, studies in economics have not secured a grasp of old and new professions within the same context. One reason is that they do not view certain occupations in terms of the concept of "profession" as an ideal type. This study reconsiders many aspects of professions and extracts the most notable features that characterize an occupation as a profession. The most crucial characteristic of an ideal profession type is a codified body of knowledge. A profession needs to be socially accepted as being highly developed and not substitutable. In addition, the occupational function of a profession involves urgency and indispensability, and the profession must be at the vertex of its field while using a common body of knowledge. In categorizing modern professionals based on these criteria, we arrived at five types: established professions, new professions, semi-professions (A), semi-professions (B), and skilled workers and experts.

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This article traces the pattern of conflict, collaboration, and compromise among trade unions, employers, political parties, executive branches, and economic research institutes in Germany, all of which have different stances regarding the introduction of a general statutory minimum wage there. This article examines the degree of political intervention in collective bargaining autonomy. First, it identifies the factors that bring about differences in stance. Second, it addresses the issue of actor independence—in particular, that of service trade unions—despite the placing of institutional factors, to establish a reference standard for the debate behind forming social movement alliances. Third, it examines the manner in which the policy's economic legitimacy is earned. We conclude that the emergence of a statutory minimum wage in Germany reflects the dynamic mix of postwar political practices in its own context with the effects of modern neoliberal economic policies.

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ABSTRACT
Most of the countries in the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) of the Europea Union (EU) experienced currency overvaluation and high production costs betwwen 2003 adn 2011, which increased their current account deficits. Despite not being an EMU member, Turkey's current account dificit increased in parallel with those of most EMU countries. Although Turkey experienced technological upgrades that changed low- and medium-tech industries into mediun- and high-tech industries, increasing exports relative to those of EU countries, it also expereinced a high trade deficit, the highest unit labor cost growth in export goods, an one of the most overvalued currencies. Its high production coast, overvalued currency, and industrialpolicies in he transport equipment industry following technological change combined with insufficient investment in the promotion of low- and medium-tech industries worssened Turkey's trade deficit in the 2000s. Thereofre, to increase its ability to compete with EU economies and reduce its trade deficit, Turkey must implement new instituonal changes to fix its wage rate growth to the productivity growth of export goods and design new policies in those industries where the trade deficid was stimulated.

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ABSTRACT
We theoretically investigate how country-specific fixed (CSFCs) affect the international location of firms, comparative advantage, and the distribution of trade gains, by presenting a two-country trade model of monopolistic competition with CSFCs. Key settings are that the expenditure shares of a homogeneous good and composite differentiated good are constant, and that the only difference across countires is in terms of fixed costs (Ricardian aspect). E drive the following results. A country with smaller fixed costs (home country) has a greater-than-proportional share of the firms of differentiated goods, a comparative advantage in differentiated goods, and higher trade gains. A unilateral decrase in CSFCs of the home (foreign) country increases (reduces) these inequalities around the arbitrary trading qeuilibrium with incomplete specialization. When the CSFCs decrase bilaterally, the resulting impacts depend on the relative rate at which CSFCs change.

Abstrak :
In this study, we develop a simple, two-person economy model based on the capability approach. We show that the two distribution rules of goods equalizing capabilities (i.e., the least disparity of capabilities and the largest value of an intersection of capabilities) satisfy the weak equity axiom (Sen, 1973) defined over our framework. The results suggest that equality of capabilities can deal appropriately with hard case issues (i.e., issues related to the treatment of the disabled). Finally, we present two examples that illustrate an optimal solution for each rule.

Abstrak :
In this study, we explore the evolution of a corporate system by analyzing the case of production and employment structures in the Toyota Group. Our findings show that the production structure of the Toyota Group, which has been gradually affected by external, market, and institutional factors since the 1980s, transformed in 2009 from a domestic-oriented production structure to an overseas-oriented production structure. We also determined that since 2004, the domestic employment structure of the Toyota Motor Corporation has evolved to allow the flexible management of worker supply and demand through the hiring of nonregular workers, in response to the amendment to the Worker Dispatching Act. Consequently, the Toyota Group's production and employment structures have evolved to help secure channels that help the company flexibly adjust its output in response to abrupt economic fluctuations.