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"ABSTRAKSebelum konsep cultural distance dikembangkan, konsep distance dalam perdagangan terfokus kepada geographical distance. Perbedaan norms, values, serta beliefs merupakan cultural distance yang berpotensi memunculkan trade cost sehingga menurunkan perdagangan. Variabel dari World Values Survey seperti trust, respect, control, dan obedience digunakan sebagai indikator cultural distance untuk menganalisis hubungan cultural distance dan perdagangan di dalam kawasan ekonomi APEC. Sebanyak 6,728 observasi digunakan dengan periode penelitian tahun 1990-2013, pertama-tama penelitian ini menggunakan metode estimasi pooled-effect OLS.Namun hasil dari pooled-effect OLS berpotensi mengandung endogenitas, sehingga penelitian ini menggunakan 3SLS sebagai strategi empiris dalam mengatasi endogenitas. Hasil estimasi menunjukkan cultural distance tidak berpengaruh terhadap perdagangan di dalam kawasan APEC, tetapi perdagangan di dalam kawasan ekonomi APEC terbukti mampu menurunkan keengganan berdagang yang muncul akibat cultural distance.

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ABSTRACT

Before the concept of cultural distance has been developed, the concept of distance in the trade has focused on geographical distance. The Differences of norms, values, and beliefs are forms of cultural distance that have potential to generate trade cost, thus lowering trade. Variables from World Values Surveys such as trust, respect, control, and obedience are used as indicators of cultural distance to analyze cultural distance and trade relations within APEC economies. A total of 6,728 observations were used for the period of 1990 2013, first of all this research used the pooled effect OLS estimation method.However, the result of pooled effect OLS potentially contains endogeneity, so this study uses 3SLS as an empirical strategy in overcoming endogenity. The estimation result shows that cultural distance has no impact within the APEC economic region, on the other hand trade within the APEC economic region decreases the reluctance of trading that occurs due to cultural distance."

"ABSTRAKAktivitas kewirausahaan melalui pendirian usaha baru ikut berkontribusi terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi karena dapat melahirkan inovasi, kompetisi dan penciptaan lapangan kerja. Untuk mendorong lebih banyak pendirian usaha baru, pemerintah di berbagai negara melakukan perbaikan regulasi usaha sehingga dapat meningkatkan kemudahan berusaha di wilayahnya. Penelitian ini secara khusus ingin menguji dampak penerapan Rencana Aksi APEC pada lima indikator kemudahan berusaha terhadap pendirian usaha di kawasan APEC. Menggunakan data 15 ekonomi anggota APEC pada tahun 2006-2018, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terjadi peningkatan perbaikan skor pada lima indikator kemudahan berusaha setelah adanya penerapan Rencana Aksi APEC. Perbaikan regulasi pada indikator memulai usaha memiliki pengaruh paling kuat terhadap pendirian usaha di kawasan APEC.

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ABSTRACTEntrepreneurial activities through firm creation has its contribution to economic growth because it creates innovation, competition and employment. To promote new firm creation, government in many countries have implemented business regulatory reforms so that they can improve the ease of doing business in their regions. This study tested the impact of the implementation of the APEC's Action Plan on five indicators of ease of doing business on firm creation in the APEC region. Using data from 15 APEC's member economies in 2006-2018, the results showed that there was a better improvement in the score of five indicators of ease of doing business after the implementation of APEC's Action Plan. Regulation reforms on the indicator of starting a business have the strongest impact on firm creation in the APEC region."

"Though the need to globalize our economic activities is becoming so important, the commencing of 2003 AFTA and APEC agreements are still feared to cause discrepancy in all sectors, given that Indonesian government protection on external trade in the form of tariffs and non-tariffs will be lessen, if not eliminated. The commencing of AFTA and APEC agreements will no doubt bring about significant changes in the way BRI is using to doing its business in the country, in terms of corporate structure and corporate governance. As a state bank, BRI is refocusing its business towards small and middle segmentation and this has become part of its Operational Restructuring Program that will lead to significant changes in BRI. One ofthe many BRI's activities which will be affected by AFTA and APEC agreements is its Foreign Exchange Transactions. Considering that Foreign Exchange transactions one of the most important supporting services in the corporate consumer transaction management, the agreements will effect, not only on the income from foreign exchange transactions, export import and other overseas services (which is one of fee based income sources), but even more on the existence of work unit and human resources that serves these transactions in the near future. The removal barriers to trade, as the impact of APEC and AFTA era, not only will affect trading activities, but also affect other related industries, including banking industry, in particular its foreign exchange transactions. The impact of APEC and AFT A should be looked at, therefore, as a major impact of trade policies that permit relatively free intra-industry trade in ASEAN countries. Relating to economic crisis in 1997-1998, a lot of Foreign FX Banks could not expand into the corporate lending business because the situation in Indonesia is not yet believed to De totally recovered. Fear of instability of politics, security and economy has restrained their strategy to open their offices in Indonesia. But there are opportunities for returns in the money market. Many experts predicts or expects that profits for Foreign FX Banks are widely open to continue, specially from trade finance and treasury activities, short term corporate lending and new individual banking initiatives that are closely linked to foreign exchange transactions. Looking at the enormous potential market, this study analyzes and lists the threats and opportunities' BRI has to survive in the free trade era and how BRI will have to improve ,its Foreign Exchange service. This effort aims at ways to compete with other emerging local and international foreign exchange banks/institutions that have been improving and preparing themselves for this event by keep improving their service in Indonesia as well as all over the world. The players in Foreign Exchange transactions have been aggressively promoting its foreign exchange activities to other countries and capture those opportunities in their hand and therefore BRI has to catch up by reevaluating its strategies and utilizing all its resources. In exploring the relationship between APEC and AFTA policies towards BRI foreign exchange transactions, this study sees that AFTA and APEC agreements provide opportunities for BRI. By looking at the industry and BRI's competitors, this study also learns that some of the threats are from regulations issued by Indonesian government in attempt to reduce rupiah fluctuations (PBI no.3/3/1999) but gave great impact on the volume trading, thus limiting the source of income. Another limitations also comes from internal policies, regarding BRI core business. In conjunction with its mission, all activities and transactions must aim at supporting, and therefore strictly followed the pmdential banking principles. Last but not least, BRI's corporate culture has played a great role in detennining the way it conducts its day-to-day business and this sometimes causes discrepancies in its service management. In summary, this study learns some of the basic BRI's competitive advantage, and by looking at its strength and weaknesses, this study gives recommendations on improving BRI's internal competitive advantage and utilizing its full resource. Main findings also suggest that BRI has a lot of homework to do in order to compete in a free-barrier trade era. The room for opportunities are mainly seen in terms of service quality, wider range of products and network distribution/ cooperation with overseas bank (correspondent banks). This study includes recommendations in service management of foreign exchange transactions. Recommendations are in line with the issues in globalization, therefore this study looks at BRI organization structure relating to international strategies, such as changing BRI's Vision and Mission- from social oriented into profit oriented, developing and enhancing its Competitive Technology, improving its service quality and implementation of the strategic recommendation such as increasing of autonomy responsibilities by setting up clear responsibilities and authorities in managing transactions, building Strategic Alliances with other Efficient Institutions (Private Financial Institutional, NGOs, etc.), expanding product innovation, offering a wide range of financial services, and utilization."