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"Sebagai salah satu faktor produksi, keberadaan tenaga kerja sangat penting dalam menentukan besaran output yang dapat di produksi. Walaupun sejalan dengan perkembangan tehnologi yang semakin maju, namun tetap diperlukan adanya tenaga kerja dalam proses produksi untuk menghasilkan beraneka jenis barang dan jasa dalam suatu perekonomian. Khususnya bila ditinjau secara mikro, komposisi penduduk yang bekerja dalam struktur kependudukan secara umum sangat penting khususnya dalam melihat distribusi output yang tercipta di tingkat nasional. Karena kurang berartilah kiranya apabila output nasional meningkat tetapi di lain pihak juga bertambah banyak jumlah penduduk non produktif yang harus menerima bagian dari total output tersebut. Indonesia termasuk dalam negara yang mempunyai populasi penduduk yang besar. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, banyak pula penduduk yang terkategori sebagai angkatan kerja. Namur banyak dari angkatan kerja yang sedang mencari pekerjaan namun tidak terserap dalam lapangan kerja yang tersedia di dalam negeri. Tersedianya kelebihan tenaga kerja ini diantisipasi oleh pemerintah, yang salah satunya adalah dengan mengatur suatu bentuk ekspor jasa tenaga kerja ke luar negeri. Namun tenaga kerja yang lebih banyak berkecimpung dalam program ekspor jasa tenaga kerja ini adalah berasal dari masyarakat dengan tingkat pendidikan dan keterampilan yang rendah. Sehingga pada negara tujuan, mereka lebih banyak mengisi lowongan yang ada pada sektor informal. Yang mana tingkat upah pada sektor tersebut lebih rendah dari yang tersedia pada sektor formal. Padahal peluang kerja baik untuk sektor formal maupun informal keduanya banyak didapati pada pasar kerja internasional. Walaupun demikian upaya penempatan TKI terampil untuk mengisi lapangan kerja formal sesuai dengan pangsa pasar yang ada. Disamping dapat mengatasi masalah ketenagakerjaan yang dihadapi pemerintah di dalam negeri, dengan keberadaan TKI ini juga memberikan masukan devisa yang bermanfaat dalain ketersediaan mata uang asing di dalam negeri yang akan digunakan sebagai alat transaksi dalam interaksi di tingkat internasional. Penerimaan devisa negara melalui TKI ini tentunya tidak terlepas dari berapa besar jumlah TKI yang beroperasi di luar negeri. Sementara baik penerimaan devisa dari TKI maupun jumlah TKI itu sendiri diperkirakan juga dipengaruhi oleh hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan motivasi individu untuk ikut serta dalam program ekspor jasa tenaga kerja ini. Hal-hal tersebut diantaranya adalah rasio gaji antara bekerja di dalam negeri dengan menjadi TKl di luar negeri, alokasi anggaran pemerintah terhadap program ini dan besarnya biaya untuk mulai beroperasi sebagai TKI. Dengan melakukan analisis terhadap variabel-variabel tersebut dengan menggunakan metode regresi dalam ilmu statistik, maka dapat di perkirakan bagaimana kepekaan penerimaan devisa dari TKI dan jumlah TKI terhadap perubahan rasio gaji, alokasi anggaran pemerintah dan biaya akses. Disamping itu bila diperhatikan dari sembilan tahun observasi yang dilakukan, maka baik plot data penerimaan devisa dari TKI maupun plot data jumlah TKI akan membentuk suatu pola tertentu yang dapat diwakili oleh suatu persamaan matematis (juga diperoleh dengan metode regresi). Sehingga dapat diduga kemungkinan besarnya penerimaan devisa dari TKI maupun jumlah TKI pada masa yang akan datang (atau pada suatu waktu tertentu). Sehingga bagi pengambil kebijakan akan mempunyai alternatif pertimbangan yang lebih komfrehensif. "

"Untuk mengantisipasi persaingan di era globalisasi, dunia usaha perlu mengoptimalkanproduktivitas dan menghindari ekonomi biaya tinggi. Salah satu solusinya adalah Labour MarketFlexibility yang diterapkan dengan memperlonggar aturan-aturan dalam pasar tenaga kerja.Outsourcing adalah salah satu bentuk penerapan dari Labor Market Flexibility. Sejak reformasiundang-undang ketenagakerjaan, terjadi pergeseran model hubungan industrial dari corporatistmodel ke contractualist, di mana intervensi pemerintah cenderung terhadap ketenagakerjaanberkurang.Penerapan konsep fleksibilitas hubungan kerja semestinya diimbangi dengan peranefektif pemerintah dalam melakukan pengawasan dan pembangunan hukum, menata sistem pasarkerja yang aman secara sosial ekonomi bagi pekerja.

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In order to anticipate the competition in the globalisation era, company must optimize its

productivity and avoid high cost economy. One of the solutions is with labor market flexibility,

which is applied by relaxing regulations in labor market. Outsourcing is one form of the labor

market flexibility practice. Since the reformation of Manpower act, there has been an industrial

relation model shift from corporatist model ke contractualist model, in which the government

intervention to the manpower regulation tends to decrease.The implementation of Labor Market

Flexibility should be balanced by the effective roles from the government to perform the

monitoring and law development and to organize the socially and economically secured system for

the labor force."

"The 2008 global financial and economic crisis led to a significant increase in unemployment rates in most developed economies, yet despite the rising supply of labor, a high share of employers claim that they cannot find the right talent and skills. Concerns that economic restructuring and changing skill needs associated with new technologies and workplace organization practices will not be met by an adequately skilled workforce, has placed the issue of skill mismatch the incongruence between skill supply and skill demand high up in the policy agenda. This volume contains eleven original research articles which deal with the linkages between education and skills and the causes and consequences of different types of skill mismatch. Topics include the way graduate jobs can be defined, the labor market decisions and outcomes of graduates, the determinants of the overeducation wage penalty, the determinants and consequences of underskilling, the wage return of skills, the impact of skill mismatch on aggregate productivity, and the role of work-related training and job complexity on skill development. "

"The employment measure act ,which was enacted in 1966 and proclaimed the general principles of Japan's labor market policies, was resived in 2007...."

"Sebagai negara dengan populasi yang besar, Indonesia memiliki tantangan tersendiri dalam mengatur sumber daya manusia agar dapat mendukung pembangunan. Pemerintah telah mengalokasikan dana yang cukup signifikan dalam bidang Pendidikan untuk dapat meningkatkan dunia Pendidikan di Indonesia yang kemudian dapat meningkatkan kemampuan dan daya saing masyarakat Indonesia di pasar tenaga kerja. Namun, sebagian besar tenaga kerja di Indonesia masih berada di sektor informal yang identik dengan pendidikan dan penghasilan yang rendah. Keputusan untuk bekerja di sektor informal ini dipengaruhi berbagai hal baik itu karakteristik individual seperti tingkat pendidikan maupun kondisi pasar tenaga kerja. Oleh karena itu, tulisan ini bertujuan untuk melihat tingkat imbal balik pendidikan secara pribadi khususnya bagi para pekerja informal dengan menggunakan persamaan Mincer serta melihat lebih jauh perbedaan tingkat imbal balik pendidikan antara pria dan wanita dan antara mereka yang berada di kota dan desa. Tulisan ini menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan masih memberikan imbal balik yang positif terhadap pendapatan para pekerja meskipun imbal balik pendidikan pada pekerja yang berada di sektor formal lebih besar daripada pekerja yang ada di sektor informal

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As developing countries with large population, Indonesia face challenges in managing its human capital to support the development. The government has allocated significant amount of money in educational sector to improve the education in Indonesia that will lead to increase in Indonesian capability and competitiveness in the labour market. However, labour market in Indonesia is still dominated by the informal workers which characterized with low educated and low earning jobs. Despite its characteristics, the decision to be informal workers can be varied and can be influenced by individual’s characteristics like education and/or labour market condition. Therefore, this paper aims to explore whether education bring private return to the informal workers by applying the Mincer human capital earning function and exploring the returns between gender and areas (rural or urban). The results show that education bring positive impact to the worker’s earning although the return is smaller in the informal sector than in the formal one."

"Labor market outcome khususnya produktivitas pekerja merupakan salah satu faktor penting bagi pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu negara. Di antara berbagai mancam hal yang memengaruhi labor market outcome, terdapat aspek religiositas yang dinilai turut berkontribusi dalam membentuk produktivitas pekerja. Namun dari studi yang dilakukan di berbagai negara dalam melihat hubungan antara religiositas dengan labor market outcome hasil yang ditemukan masih bersifat abu-abu, di mana terdapat temuan yang menyatakan bahwa kedua hal tersebut memiliki hubungan negatif, dan ada juga temuan yang menyatakan hal sebaliknya. Dengan menggunakan data IFLS 5 dan upah per bulan pekerja sebagai proksi labor market outcome, studi ini hendak mengetahui hubungan antara tingkat religiositas pekerja terhadap labor market outcome di Indonesia sebagai negara dengan masyarakat yang terhitung memiliki tingkat religiositas tinggi. Studi ini menggunakan metode estimasi OLS dengan jumlah sampel sebanyak 6.450 individu pekerja berusia lima belas tahun ke atas. Hasil pada studi ini menemukan bahwa adanya hubungan negatif antara tingkat religiositas pekerja dengan produktivitas yang dimilikinya. Hal ini dapat terjadi di lingkungan Indonesia yang religius akibat adanya faktor lain yang dinilai memiliki dampak lebih besar terhadap labor market outcome dibandingkan aspek religiositas, serta adanya kemungkinan pengaruh sekularisme dalam membentuk hubungan kedua hal tersebut.

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Labor market outcome, especially worker productivity, are one of the significant factors for the economic growth of a country. Among the various things that affect labor market outcome, there is an aspect of religiosity that contributed to shaping worker productivity. However, from studies conducted in different countries in looking at the relationship between religiosity and labor market outcome, the findings of the results are still unclear. Several studies are findings that the two things have a negative relationship, and other studies are finding the opposite results. This study aims to determine the relationship between the level of religiosity and labor market outcome in Indonesia as a country with people who have a high level of religiosity by using IFLS 5 data and worker's monthly wages as proxies for labor market outcome. This study uses the OLS estimation method with a sample of 6,450 individual workers aged at least fifteen years. The results of this study found that there was a negative relationship between the level of worker's religiosity and their productivity. This condition can happen in the Indonesian religious environment due to other factors that capture the source of impact on labor market outcome better than worker's religiosity. In addition, there is the possibility of secularism's influence in shaping the relationship between the two."

"Apakah trade openness sebuah racun atau obat bagi industrialisasi? Di era kontemporer, industrialisasi masih menjadi kekuatan penting yang mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi. Sebaliknya, trade openness menempati posisi kontroversial dan menerima dukungan dan kritik. Literatur yang ada menunjukkan sifat yang kontras mengenai dampak trade openness dan (de)industrialisasi. Makalah ini berkontribusi dengan mempelajari pengaruh trade openness terhadap (de)industrialisasi dengan berfokus pada negara berkembang dan maju serta menggunakan ukuran trade openness yang berbeda yang berfokus pada barang setengah jadi (intermediate goods). Kami melakukan analisis regresi panel selama periode 2000–2019, mengamati 39 negara maju dan 87 negara berkembang. Hasil penelitian kami menunjukkan bahwa di negara-negara berkembang, trade openness barang dan jasa secara keseluruhan serta barang setengah jadi berhubungan positif dan signifikan dengan industrialisasi. Hasil penelitian kami mendukung implikasi liberalisasi perdagangan terhadap pertumbuhan industri di negara berkembang.

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Is trade openness a poison or medicine for industrialization? In the contemporary era, industrialization remains a pivotal force propelling economic growth. Conversely, trade openness occupies a contentious position, receiving both support and criticism. Existing literature exhibits a contrasting nature on the effect of trade openness and (de)industrialization. This paper contributes by studying the influence of trade openness on (de)industrialization by focusing on developing and developed economies and employing a distinct measure of trade openness that focuses on intermediate goods. We carried out a panel regression analysis over the period 2000– 2019, observing 39 developed and 87 developing economies. Our results show that for developing economies, trade openness of both overall goods and services and of intermediate goods are positively and significantly associated with industrialization. Our results support the implication of trade liberalization for industrial growth in developing economies."

"ABSTRAKCombining Work and Family Care Although the various research that has addressed the difficulties of balancing work and family life over the years has generally focused on issues related to raising children, increasing attention is being given to the task of caring for older people as an important family responsibility as developed countries grapple with declining birthrates and aging populations. Among such countries, Japan is experiencing population aging at a particularly rapid pace. Japan?s rate of population aging?namely, the percentage of people aged 65 or over among the total population?is currently the highest in the world, at over 25%. In that sense, Japan is at the ?forefront? of super-aging society. In the past, the Japanese govern-ment has looked to other countries such as the US and European nations as guides in for-mulating its policies, but in the field of policies related to older people, Japan may be facing issues that are yet to arise in other countries. This edition was compiled on the basis of the concept that a publication of articles which grasp the development of such issues has the potential to be a valuable source of information for researchers and policymakers in other countries. The first article in this edition, ?Current Situation and Problems of Legislation on Long-Term Care in Japan?s Super-Aging Society? by Kimiyoshi Inamori, investigates is-sues concerning policies to support caregiving for older people in Japan from the perspec-tive of both the long-term care insurance system and the system of caregiver leave. While the long-term care insurance system, which was first implemented in 2000, may try to pro-vide sufficient benefits for older people who require long-term care, this system alone does not in fact necessarily always meet all of their care needs. Family caregiving is therefore required to complement long-term care insurance services. As the system of caregiver leave established in the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act was created to allow people with family members requiring care to take time to prepare and arrange a system for that care to be provided, income guarantees for workers on caregiver leave are provided in the form of caregiver leave benefits from the employment insurance system. However, noting that the percentage of workers who actually take caregiver leave is extremely low, Inamori suggests that to assist workers in balancing work with family care it is more important to develop schemes related to ways of working, such as short working hour systems or limits on over-time work. The issues raised in this article such as the need to increase the take up rate of caregiver leave and develop the system through measures for reduced working hours and limitations on overtime work, are key points that have been addressed in the amendments to the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act that will take effect in 2017. The revised act makes caregiver leave easier to use by allowing caregivers to take the 93 days of leave in three segments. It has also increased the minimum period during which employers are obliged to provide measures such as short working hours and other such schemes for re-ducing working hours, etc. (also including flextime, pushing the time of starting or finishing work forward or backward, and subsidizing the costs of long-term care), which allow care-givers to balance daily caregiving responsibilities with work, from the current 93 days to three years. The Act also guarantees workers the right to restrictions on overtime working hours until the end of caregiving. In ?Family Care Leave and Job Quitting Due to Caregiving: Focus on the Need for Long-Term Leave,? I investigate the potential effects of these amendments to the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act, as well as identifying new issues that require further ex-amination. Based on the results of analysis of data on workers who are employed when caregiving begins, the article reveals that (i) the greater the need to take caregiver leave, the less likely working caregivers are to remain continuously employed at the same enterprise from the beginning to the end of the caregiving period, but the need for caregiver leave can be alleviated through the use of long-term care services, (ii) regardless of the degree of need to take caregiver leave, workers who work six hours or less per day are more likely to re-main continuously employed at the same enterprise than those who work over eight hours a day, and (iii) those who care for their own parents have a greater need for caregiver leave than those who care for the parents of a spouse, but regardless of the necessity for caregiver leave, among workers who provide care alone without assistance from their families, and workers who care for relatives with severe dementia, there is a low likelihood of continuous employment at the same enterprise. In other words, it can be said that a factor behind the low numbers of people taking caregiver leave is the increase in the use of services offered through long-term care insurance. However, social changes such as the increase in people caring for their own biological parents and the rise in people who care for relatives alone without other family members to assist them suggest the possibility that in the future there will continue to be an increase in the number of people leaving their employment due to caregiving responsibilities. The analysis results indicate that in order to curb this increase, in addition to the caregiver leave system, it is also important to develop systems such as short working hours and limitations on overtime hours. In this sense, the recent amendments to the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act are suited to addressing the current circum-stances under which people leave employment to provide care. At the same time, as the current framework was developed with the necessity for physical care that arises in the case of cerebrovascular diseases and other such conditions in mind, it may not cover social measures to support care for dementia, and this article also highlights the importance of such measures as an issue that will require more extensive consideration in the future. Since the amendments that took effect in 2010, the Child Care and Family Care Leave Act has prescribed the obligation of enterprises to provide not only long-term care-giver leave but also ?time off for caregivers? that can be taken in one-day units, and with the introduction of the 2017 amendments caregivers will be able to take this time off in half-day units. Mayumi Nishimoto?s ?Choices of Leave When Caring for Family Members: What Is the Best System for Balancing Family Care with Employment?? investigates the necessity of not only leave that can be taken on a long-term basis, but also a flexible time-off system like time off for caregivers. The results of the analysis reveal the following five points. Firstly, when the main caregiver ratio is higher, the likelihood of taking care-giver leave increases, and absenteeism is particularly likely. Secondly, leave is more likely to be taken when the spouse works longer hours, especially when the spouse?s employment format precludes the control of those working hours. The likelihood of absenteeism is also higher if the spouse is a regular employee, and the likelihood of taking annual leave in-creases more or less significantly when the spouse is a regular employee or non-regular em-ployee, or when there is no spouse. Thirdly, the likelihood that leave will be taken rises in cases where the person requiring care is admitted to a general hospital or geriatric hospital and in such cases caregiver leave and annual leave are particularly likely to be taken. Fourthly, absenteeism is more likely to occur when the caregiver has a lower annual income. Fifthly, absenteeism is also more prone to occur if the person is not a regular employee. In other words, this indicates that depending on the environment of family caregiving, there is also a demand not only for caregiving leave that can be taken on a long-term basis, but also time off that caregivers can take in single-day units. As is also indicated in the aforementioned articles, balancing work and caregiving is shaped by various environmental factors, such as social services and support from enter-prises, as well as the factors highlighted by Nishimoto in relation to family environment. In ?Frameworks for Balancing Work and Long-Term Care Duties, and Support Needed from Enterprises,? Yoko Yajima focusses on the correlations between these various fields, pur-suing quantitative analysis based on the hypothesis that the quality of the balance of work and care (?subjective sense that balance is achieved, and preservation of a feeling that work is rewarding?) differs depending on the frameworks and circumstances surrounding the balance of work and care. In doing so she looks at these ?frameworks and circumstances surrounding the balance of work and care? from the five perspectives of attributes of the caregiver, attributes of the care recipient, the relationship between these two people and the role the caregiver plays, the long-term care framework (including the use of long-term care services, and cooperation from other family members), and the caregiver?s work style or format (flexible work schedules and utilization of leave, etc.). The results of this analysis reveal that while caring for an elderly relative appears at first glance to place caregivers in circumstances that are more complex and diverse than those faced when raising children, if factors such as the attributes of the care recipient, the relationship between the caregiver and care recipient, and the long-term care framework are controlled, the types of support that employees seek from enterprises with regard to working styles and formats entail ?curtail-ing excessively long working hours,? ?creating an environment in which time off can be taken flexibly and support programs can be utilized with ease,? and ?supervisors? consider-ation for employees? circumstances,? and there is hardly any difference between these forms of support and the type of work environment required for employees raising children to achieve work-life balance. However, given that if the care ?framework? required for bal-ancing work and long-term care duties is not in place, support related to work style and format from enterprises will not function effectively, Yajima highlights that it is therefore important that enterprises do not merely offer such support in terms of work styles and for-mats, but also encourage caregivers, who often try to handle duties directly by themselves, to focus on the ?management of care services and division of duties,? that is, using long-term care services and other such support effectively and dividing duties among family members. The final article in this journal, ?Current Issues regarding Family Caregiving and Gender Equality in Japan: Male Caregivers and the Interplay between Caregiving and Mas-culinities? by Mao Saito, examines the problems faced by family caregivers in Japan from the perspective of gender. More specifically, Saito focuses on the increasing numbers of male caregivers in Japan, and investigates what significance the increase in male caregivers may have for the achievement of gender equality in family caregiving, in light of the actual conditions of caregiving by male caregivers. Contemporary family caregiving is inseparable from the gender relationship between men as the breadwinners and women as the caregivers. At the same time, in Japan as in other countries, changes in family structures are leading to a growing number of situations in which men must take on caregiving roles. As men take on caregiving roles, they are forced to confront their own masculinities, and by looking at the difficulties faced by male caregivers, this article demonstrates that care and masculinities are not simply conflicting aspects of men?s identities. In discourse on ?welfare regimes,? Japan is considered to be a conservative regime in which the family takes the key role in providing care. However, as family sizes decline along with decreases in birth rates, it is becoming difficult to rely on families to provide care, and efforts have been made to supplement family care by socializing caregiving through the development of public long-term care services and company-based support for balancing work and caregiving. Countries with social democratic regimes in which the gov-ernment typically provides substantial policies for supporting elderly people and liberal regimes characterized by small government models may find that the onset of super-aging society necessitates some kinds of changes to their frameworks. We hope that this edition provides useful insights to readers who are aware of such issues. Shingou Ikeda The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training "