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"This study is aimed at describing and explaining the variation of the realization of politeness strategies on the directive in the Indonesian language produced by members of the Minangkabau ethnic group in Padang. The sources of the data are Indonesian speakers who originally belong to the Minangkabau ethnic group. In addition, there are also data taken from documents. The data consist of utterances performing directives in Indonesian produced by members of the Minangkabau ethnic group in Padang. The data were collected using survey questionnaire, interview, participant observation and from documentary sources. The main method of data analysis was quantitative and supported by qualitative analysis.The results of the study reveal that the cues showing the phenomena are as follows. In the realization of directives in Indonesian, the respondent uses the various types of utterances that can be grouped into five categories as suggested by Brown and Levinson (1987). The frequency distribution among categories is different. The five main speech act categories are (1) bald on record, (2) on record with redressive action using positive politeness, (3) on record with redressive action using negative politeness, (4) off record, and (5) not doing the face-threatening act (FTA).The use of speech strategies is in-line with the degree of politeness, namely the awareness to show that the speaker saves the face of the participants, specifically the face of the addressee from the acts threatening his face. The respondents of this study (possibly the other speakers as well) minimize the threat to participants' face by mitigating the illocutionary force of the utterance. Basically, they mitigate the illocutionary force in two ways, namely (1) minimizing the distance between speaker and addressee (in-group ness) and (2) maximizing the distance between speaker and addressee (distancing).The speaker chooses a certain speech strategy based on the potential weight of the threat to the participants face. The weight of the threat is calculated on the basis of two main parameters, namely (1) degree of power differences between speaker and addressee (+ P or -P) and (2) degree of solidarity between speaker and addressee (+S or -S). If the power of the speaker is higher than that of the addressee and the solidarity between the speaker and the addressee is low and other factors remain constant, the weight of the face threat is high. On the contrary, if the power of the speaker is lower than that of the addressee and the degree of solidarity is high while the other factors remain constant, the weight of the face threat is low. If the weight of the face threat is high, the respondents tend to choose more indirect speech strategies. On the other hand, if the face threat is low, the participants tend to choose the more direct speech strategies.Among the five main speech strategies, the strategy on record with redressive action using negative politeness is the most frequently used for realizing directive in Indonesian. The plausible explanation for this choice is the fact that this strategy contains medium level indirectness; the utterances produced are not too direct as in bald on record, nor is it too indirect as in hints. Bald on record strategy produces a strong illocutionary force that can be perceived by the addressee as imperative. On the other hand, hints are considered as utterances, which are so indirect that the addressee as irony can perceive them. Both imperative and irony might threaten the addressee's face. The selection of speech strategies in the realization of directive speech act in Indonesian by the respondents is influenced by the use of the Minangkabau language that recognizes four types of register so-called longgam kato non ampek (four types of Minangkabau register which functions to differ the level of politeness). The influence of langgam kato nary ampek on the selection of speech strategy can clearly be observed in the use of address terms and the use of indirect speech acts.The findings show that there are inter-group differences within the Minangkabau ethnic community in Padang in the realization of directives on the basis of age group and social class, but the difference is not significant in terms of gender variable. Respondents who are younger and those who come from lower social class use indirect speech strategies more frequently than those who are older or those who come from the higher social class. The younger respondents and those who come from the lower social class possess higher awareness to save the participants' face, specifically the addressee's face as compared to the older respondents and those who come from the higher social class. The tendency to use indirect speech act in the realization of directives by the younger respondents and those who come from the lower social class results from their evaluation that more indirect speech strategies tend to have a lower probability to threaten the face than direct speech acts.The differences in the realization of speech strategies by the respondents on the basis of age group and social class show that there is an on-going shift in the way of viewing the politeness principle by Minangkabau ethnic group in Padang. Politeness principle, which used to be adhered to by minimizing the social distance between the speaker and the addressee (in-group ness), is slowly replaced by the politeness principle which is observed by maximizing the social distance between the speaker and the addressee (distancing). The shift is hypothesized to result from the fact that the younger respondents and those from the lower social class feel unsafe when they use on record with redressive action using positive politeness strategy, whose basic principle is to minimize the social distance between the speaker and the addressee."

"Judul penelitian disertasi ini adalah Komunikasi Fatis di Kalangan Penutur Jati Bahasa Inggris. Tujuan dari penelitian ini secara umum adalah untuk menjelaskan komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris, sementara tujuan khususnya adalah untuk menjelaskan fungsi dan bentuk komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris serta kaitan keduanya dengan faktor kuasa dan solidaritas di dalam diri petutur, faktor situasi, dan kesantunan berbahasa. Empat tipe petutur yang dilibatkan di dalam penelitian ini adalah superior akrab, superior tidak akrab, subordinat akrab, dan subordinat tidak akrab.Penelitian disertasi ini bersifat kualitatif, empiris, dan sinkronis, yang bertujuan untuk mencari makna, yaitu untuk melihat komunikasi fatis dari sudut pandang penutur jati bahasa Inggris. Dan tiga ragam bahasa Inggris terbesar di dunia, yaitu bahasa Inggris ragam Amerika, bahasa Inggris ragam Britania, dan bahasa Inggris ragam Australia, diambil sembilan penutur jati yang dilibatkan sebagai informan penelitian. Pemilihan informan dilakukan berdasarkan dialek yang berbeda untuk bahasa Inggris ragam Amerika dan bahasa Inggris ragam Britania, dan berdasarkan teritori yang berbeda untuk bahasa Inggris ragam Australia.Penelitian disertasi ini menggunakan tiga metode penelitian kualitatif, yaitu wawancara, transkripsi, dan analisis tekstual (Silverman, 2000). Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan teknik wawancara mendalam (in-depth interview) kepada informan dan teknik eksplorasi. Panduan wawancara atau kuesioner berbentuk formal dan semiterstruktur, yang berisi duabelas fungsi komunikasi fatis. Masing-masing fungsi di dalam kuesioner divariasikan dengan menggunakan prompts, yaitu pertanyaan pendek yang lebih spesifik dan mengarahkan yang digunakan untuk membangun keduabelas fungsi komunikasi fatis tersebut. Persiapan wawancara dilakukan sebelumnya, dan wawancara direkam. Sementara itu, materi dan data dari sumber-sumber tertulis lain basil eksplorasi nantinya dilibatkan di dalam proses triangulasi. Dengan demikian, validitas atau nilai sebenmmya dan reliabilitas atau otentisitas penelitian dapat dijaga. Analisis tekstual di dalam penelitian disertasi ini dilakukan dengan teknik pengodean, yang terbagi menjadi tiga langkah yaitu pengodean terbuka, pengodean aksial, dan pengodean selektif (Strauss dan Corbin, 1990; Holloway, 1997). Pengodean terbuka digunakan untuk menganalisis basil wawancara dengan masing-masing informan secara terpisah, dan pengodean aksial untuk menyatukan ide-ide dari masing-masing informan untuk membangun kategori besar. Sementara itu, pengodean selektif digunakan untuk menemukan fenomena utama atau kategori inti penelitian, yang berfungsi memadukan dan menghasilkan alur cerita, yaitu duabelas fungsi komunikasi fatis. Setelah proses pengodean selesai, data dianalisis dengan menggunakan metode interpretasi dengan perangkat pengujian asumsi kritis teoretis dan asumsi logis empiris. Literatur atau kepustakaan yang terkait digunakan sebagai konfinnasi atau refutasi. Semua elemen dari teori yang muncul dan ide-ide yang signifikan dari informan dipadukan di dalam sebuah sintesis. Sintesis tersebut berupa deskripsi yang rinci basil penelitian sehingga peneliti lain dapat memeroleh pengetahuan yang cukup untuk melakukan penilaian.Hasil penelitian disertasi ini menunjukkan bahwa komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris digunakan untuk menyatakan duabelas fungsi, yaitu (1) untuk memecahkan kesenyapan, (2) untuk memulai percakapan, (3) untuk melakukan basa-basi, (4) untuk melakukan gosip, (5) untuk menjaga agar percakapan tetap berlangsung, (6) untuk mengungkapkan solidaritas, (7) untuk menciptakan harmoni, (8) untuk menciptakan perasaan nyaman, (9) untuk mengungkapkan empati, (10) untuk mengungkapkan persahabatan, (11) untuk mengungkapkan penghormatan, dan (12) untuk mengungkapkan kesantunan. Fungsi dan bentuk komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris dipengaruhi oleh faktor kuasa dan solidaritas yang ada pads petutur yang berbeda dan faktor situasi informal dan formal. Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kesantunan (memertahankan jarak sosial), untuk mengungkapkan kesantunan dan persahabatan (memerpendek jarak sosial), dan untuk mengungkapkan persahabatan (menghilangkan jarak sosial) kepada petutur yang berbeda-beda dalam hal kuasa dan solidaritas. Komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris adalah kesantunan yang bersifat strategis volisional, yaitu merupakan pilihan aktif dari kemauan penutur dan merupakan sistem komunikasi terbuka yang dinamis dengan pertimbangan kepada petutur yang berbeda-beda dalam hal kuasa dan solidaritas.Temuan penelitian disertasi ini juga menunjukkan bahwa komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris sesuai dengan teori komuni fatis dari Malinowski (1923), teori fungsi bahasa ekspresif dan apelatif dari Biihler (1918), teori fungsi bahasa fatis dari Jakobson (1960), dan teori fungsi bahasa interpersonal dari Halliday (1978), Komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris juga sejalan dengan teori Jendela Johari (Johari Window) dalam konteks komunikasi dua orang. Komunikasi fatis juga merupakan realitas sosiokultural di dalam masyarakat penutur jati bahasa Inggris yang relatif berbeda dari masyarakat bahasa lainnya dan merupakan bagian dari kompetensi komunikatif yang ada di dalam diri penutur jati bahasa Inggris. Komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris adalah sebuah wacana yang terdiri dari teks dan konteks. Teks komunikasi fatis tersebut adalah berbagai ungkapan yang digunakan penutur jati bahasa Inggris untuk memelihara hubungan sosial di kalangan mereka, sementara konteks komunikasi tersebut di antaranya adalah fungsi komunikatif yang berbeda, petutur yang berbeda dalam hal kuasa dan solidaritas, dan situasi yang berbeda. Teks komunikasi fatis di kalangan penutur jati bahasa Inggris diikat oleh konteks dari komunikasi fatis tersebut.

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This dissertation research is entitled Phatic Communication among English Native Speakers. In general, this research is aimed at describing phatic communication among English native speakers, while, in particular, it is aimed at describing the functions and forms of phatic communication among English native speakers, and the relation of the functions and forms with the power and solidarity factor in the hearer, situation factor, and linguistic politeness. Four types of hearer are involved in this research, i.e. close superior, not close superior, close subordinate, and not close subordinate.

This dissertation research is qualitative, empirical, and synchronic in nature, the aim of which is to try to seek meaning, i.e. to see phatic communication from the viewpoint of English native speakers. From the three biggest varieties of English in the world, i.e. American English, British English, and Australian English, nine native speakers have been involved as the research informants. The selection of informants is based on the existing different dialects for American English and British English and on different territories for Australian English.

This dissertation research employs three qualitative methods, i.e. interview, transcription, and textual analysis (Silverman, 2000). The data collection for this research is done by an in-depth interview) to the informants and an exploration technique. The questionnaire or interview guide is of the formal and semi-structured type. Each function in the questionnaire is varied by using prompts, Le. shorter, more specific and directing questions to build the proposed twelve functions of phatic communication. The preparation for the interview is done before, and the interview is recorded. Meanwhile, other material and data from other written sources by the exploration technique are later involved in a triangulation process. Thus, the validity or the truth value and the reliability or the authenticity of the research can be maintained.

The textual analysis in this research is done through a coding technique, which is divided into three steps, i.e. open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Holloway, 1997). The open coding is used to analyze the interview transcript of each informant separately, and the axial coding to combine the ideas from each informant to build bigger categories. Meanwhile, the selective coding is to find out the main phenomena or the core categories of the research. These core categories function to unite and create a story line, i.e. the proposed twelve functions of phatic communication. After the coding process, the data are analyzed by using the method of interpretation with the two testing devices, the theoretical, critical assumptions and the empirical, logical assumptions. Related literature is used to confirm or to refute. All emerging elements of the theories and significant ideas from the informants are combined into a synthesis. The synthesis is a thick description on the research findings so that other researchers are equipped with enough knowledge to give judgments.

The results of this dissertation research show that phatic communication among English native speakers is used for twelve functions, i.e. (1) to break the silence, (2) to start a conversation, (3) to make small talk, (4) to make gossip, (5) to keep talking, (6) to express solidarity, (7) to create harmony, (8) to create comfort, (9) to express empathy, (11) to express friendship, and (12) to express politeness. The functions and forms of phatic communication among English native speakers are influenced by the factor of power and solidarity in the four different types of hearer and the factor of informal and formal situations. The research findings also show that phatic communication among English native speakers is used to express politeness only (to maintain social distance), to express politeness and friendship at the same time (to shorten social distance), and to express friendship only (to eliminate social distance) to the four types of hearer different in power and solidarity. Phatic communication among English native speakers is a volitional, strategic politeness, i.e. an active choice from the hearer's will and an open, dynamic communication system with the considerations to the types of hearer different in power and solidarity.

The findings of the research also show that phatic communication among English native speakers is in line with the theory of phatic communion from Malinowski (1923), the theory of expressive and appeal functions from Buhler (1918), the theory of phatic function from Jakobson (1960), and the theory of interpersonal function from Halliday (1978). Phatic communication among English native speakers is also in line with the theory of Johari Window in the context of person-to-person communication. Phatic communication is also a sociocultural reality in the community of English native speakers, which is relatively different from those in other language communities, and a part of communicative competence in English native speakers. Phatic communication among English native speakers is a discourse consisting of text and context. The text of phatic communication comprises various expressions used by English native speakers to maintain social relationship among them, while the context of the communication is among others different communicative functions, types of hearer different in power and solidarity, and different situations. The text of phatic communication among English native speakers is bound to the context of the phatic communication."