Hasil Pencarian  ::  Simpan CSV :: Kembali

Abstrak :
ABSTRACT
Endiandra R.Br. is a genus consisted of more than 100 tree and shrub species that are distributed in Asia and Australia with several species found in Pacific Islands (Rohwer 1993). New Guinea and Australia are the most-rich areas of Endiandra with approximately 50 species and 38 species respectively. Unlike Australian Endiandra which have been treated thoroughly, the New Guinean species are less known and difficult to recognize. No recent research was done for Endiandra from New Guinea since over four decades ago where materials for a revision of Lauraceae was prepared by Kostermans in 1969. Moreover, based on observation on the specimens, New Guinea is thought to be the main distribution area of Endiandra, therefore it is important to undertake a taxonomic treatment of New Guinean Endiandra. During observation of herbarium specimens of Endiandra, it is noted that the flowers of Endiandra are composed by different floral parts. Staminal glands located nearby the stamens can be present or absent in different species. It is noted that all species of Endiandra from Borneo bear no staminal glands at the base of the stamens, however 31 out of 38 species of Australian Endiandra do bear glands. It is important to know the variation of New Guinean species in terms of the presence of glands because the character might be useful for further categorization within Endiandra. Based on the facts above, the study of the genus Endiandra was carried in three related topics. The first topic entitled Species enumeration of Endiandra R.Br. (Lauraceae) in New Guinea. This study was carried out at the Herbarium Bogoriense (BO) using Endiandra specimens available at BO and recently collected specimens from Waigeo Island. Loan specimens from Singapore Botanic Gardens (SING) were also studied, including images of type specimens from The Natural History Museum, London (BM); National Botanic Garden of Belgium (BR); Harvard University Herbaria, Massachusetts (HUH); Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (K); Nationaal Herbarium Nederland, Leiden (L); Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (P); and Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (US). Forty six species of Endiandra are recognized from New Guinea, with discovery of six new species, i.e., Endiandra areolata, E. crassitepala, E. cupulata, E. kassamensis, E. lanata and E. rifaiana. It is noted that 36 species are endemic to New Guinea, distributed in both West Papua and Papua New Guinea. Ten species are distributed further to the West up to Celebes, Moluccas and to the Southeast in Australia. Most New Guinean species of Endiandra bear staminal glands in their flowers, only eight species lack of glands. To understand the importance of staminal glands for creating grouping within Endiandra, the second and third topics were carried out in this study. The second topic entitled The phylogenetic relationships of New Guinean species of Endiandra and Beilschmiedia (Lauraceae) based on morphological characters. The study was aimed to understand the relationships among Endiandra species in New Guinea, the distribution of species with and without staminal glands in the cladogram and to understand the relationships of Endiandra and Beilschmiedia. Selected morphological characters from the study of Topic 1 were analyzed to understand the relationships of Endiandra species. Fifty taxa, consisted of 41 species of Endiandra, 6 species of Beilschmiedia (as in-groups) and 3 species of Cryptocarya (as outgroups) with 47 characters were analyzed using Maximum Parsimony method and resulted in 86 most parsimonious trees. Even though the species with staminal glands are grouped together in clades I, II, III, IV and VI, the species with and without staminal glands are grouped together in clade V. Therefore, in this study, the grouping within Endiandra based on the presence and absence of staminal glands was not well supported. Moreover, Endiandra and Beilschmiedia are forming their own clades, suggesting the two genera are monophyletic based on morphological characters. Stamen number and position in the floral whorls determined the generic delimitation between the two genera. Endiandra has 3 or 6 stamens in the 3rd whorl or 2nd and 3rd whorls (respectively), whereas Beilschmiedia has 9 or 6 stamens in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd whorls or 1st and 2nd whorls (respectively). However, characters selection is subjective, which different characters used for the phylogenetic analysis will result in different grouping. Therefore, finding new characters that are reliable for grouping is needed, and phylogenetic analysis using those characters are suggested to be carried out to improve the knowledge on the species relationships of Endiandra. The third topic entitled Phylogenetic relationships of Endiandra R.Br. (Lauraceae) inferred from ITS regions of nrDNA sequences was aimed to understand the relationships among Endiandra species and between Endiandra and Beilschmiedia. Molecular data of ITS region of nrDNA sequences was explored for the first time to understand the phylogenetic relationships of Endiandra. Thirty one species of Endiandra and Beilschmiedia were analysed, including 7 species of Cryptocarya used as outgroups. The parsimony analysis of the ITS sequences of nrDNA has resulted in 108 equally parsimonious trees. One of most parsimonious trees suggested that Beilschmiedia cannot be separated from Endiandra which explained the difficulty of distinguishing the two based on morphology. The staminal glands distributed in the lower clades of the tree, left the terminal clade with a group of glandless species with an exception of E. monothyra B. Hyland. Staminal gland is a good character for practical purpose but the grouping based on the present and absence of stamina gland is not well supported by the ITS sequences of nrDNA. Improving the resolutions of the cladogram for more reliable interpretations of the species relationships within Endiandra is suggested by adding more samples and introducing more suitable markers.

Abstrak :
ABSTRACT
Marasmiellus is a tropical and subtropical genus which consists of more than 400 species. The genus plays important roles in ecosystem as a decomposer, and not many information on its economic value. Several monographs of the genus have been published based on morphological data from several tropical forests (neotropics, Africa, Srilanka), and no report on the Indonesian Marasmiellus. At present, taxonomic problem occurs in the genus related to the position of Marasmiellus juniperinus as a type genus in the phylogenetic tree based on Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region. Marasmiellus juniperinus nested into different clade from other Marasmiellus species, and it was clustered in Gymnopus clade. Since Marasmiellus has never been reported from Indonesia and the taxonomic problem occurs at the genus, thus the objectives of this study are 1) To describe the species of Marasmiellus found in Java and Bali; 2) To provide an identification key to sections and species; 3) To analyse the phylogenetic relationship within the genus Marasmiellus in Java and Bali based on morphological and molecular characters performed by Maximum Parsimony method; 4) To clarify the relationship of the genus Marasmiellus and M. juniperinus to its closely related genera with inclusion of more Marasmiellus spp. based on ITS region of rDNA sequence data; and 5) To describe novel species of Marasmiellus based on morphological and molecular data. Java and Bali were chosen as research sites in this study due to several reasons. First, historically most of Indonesian reported agarics were collected from Java, particularly from Mount Gede-Pangrango, Cibodas and Bogor Botanical Gardens. Second, forest degradation is going rapidly in Java and Bali. As a result Indonesia is loosing habitats of Marasmiellus. This study was divided into three topics according to the purposes of this study. The first topic entitled Species of Marasmiellus in Java and Bali. The study was carried out in Herbarium Bogoriense, The Botany Division, Research Center for Biology, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). Herbarium materials are kept in Herbarium Bogoriense (BO) and Harry D. Thiers Herbarium, San Francisco State University (SFSU), SF, CA, USA. Materials used in this research were collected in 1998-2010 from 10 different locations in Java and Bali which consisted of 22 sites. A representative material of Marasmiellus juniperinus, as a type genus, was borrowed from the Herbarium of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (TENN). The identification results revealed that there were 35 known species; one species as a new combination; 17 undescribed species. Those 35 species consist of 25 species of Marasmiellus found in Java, 7 species found in Bali, and 3 species found both in Java and Bali. All described species were treated based on infrageneric classification of Singer (1973) which divided the genus into 10 sections based on morphological characters. Based on Singer?s infrageneric classification Marasmiellus in Java and Bali belonged to 5 sections, i.e sect. Marasmiellus, sect. Rameales, sect. Dealbati, sect. Candidi, and sect. Stenophylloides. The second topic entitled Phylogenetic study of the genus Marasmiellus based on morphological and molecular analysis. Thirty five morphological characters of 37 taxa were scored manually for phylogenetic analysis based on morphological characters. Those taxa consisted of 35 species of Marasmiellus in Java and Bali found (topic 1), a type species of Marasmiellus (M. juniperinus), and Crinipellis brunneipurpurea as an outgroup. Matrix data was analyzed by Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (PAUP) program. The topology of phylogenetic tree based on morphological data was compared to topology of phylogenetic tree based on molecular data. The phylogenetic tree based on morphological and molecular characters showed that Marasmiellus spp. were divided into four major clades. Each clade consisted of several Singer?s sections. This result indicated that the sections within Singer?s infrageneric classification were polyphyletic. Morphological and molecular phylogenies resulted in this study did not support traditional classification, i.e. Singer?s classification of Marasmiellus. The phylogenetic relationship of Marasmiellus taxa, Gymnopus and its closely related genera were analyzed using molecular data of ITS rDNA. Forty one sequences based on ITS region representing of 36 species of Marasmiellus were used for phylogenetic analysis. Nine sequences of Marasmiellus were generated from this study, and 32 sequences were obtained from the international DNA database (GenBank). The phylogenetic tree showed that Marasmiellus taxa were divided into 4 clades. The taxa of Marasmiellus and Gymnopus were clustered together in three of four clades. The type species, Marasmiellus juniperinus was located within the same clade as Gymnopus fusipes. This result indicated that the genus Marasmiellus was polyphyletic. The third topic entitled Description of a novel species, Marasmiellus javanicus, based on morphological and molecular analysis. Marasmiellus javanicus is one of the 17 new species in this study, and it was described by using the integrated morphological and molecular data. Marasmiellus javanicus was described as a new species based on 5 specimens found in Bogor Botanical Garden, West Java. Morphologically it was similar to M. hondurensis (Murrill) Singer which was collected from Belice in 1906 by Peck (Singer 1973). The characters similarities of M. javanicus and M. hondurensis were off-white, same size of width, convex with flattened disc of pileus; subdistant lamellae; tomentose and insititious stipe; cutis with diverticulate of pileipellis, and presence of stipe vesture. Marasmiellus hondurensis was different from M. javanicus in having longer stipe (6?22 mm diam), fusoid basidiospores, Rotalis-type of cheilocystidia, and M. hondurensis was found on dicotyledon plant. At present, there is no sequence based on ITS rDNA of M. hondurensis. Thus, genetically M. hondurensis was unable to be compared to M. javanicus. To know the closest species of M. javanicus, phylogenetic tree of Marasmiellus was constructed. Phylogenetic tree showed that the most closely related species to M. javanicus was M. mesosporus. Marasmiellus javanicus and M. mesosporus have ITS rDNA 94% sequence similarity. They differ in 27 nucleotides which were 7 insertion and deletion, and 24 of substitution (A↔G=11, C↔T=13). This study showed that integrated morphological and molecular data are required to identify the Marasmiellus.