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"Studi ini bertujuan untuk melakukan evaluasi kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan. Penulis mengkaji dampak kebijakan-kebijakan ini terhadap kinerja perekonomian, kemiskinan, dan ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan dengan menggunakan pendekatan komputasi keseimbangan umum.Penulis menemukan bahwa kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor di sektor pertanian dan di sektor industri pertanian meningkatkan kinerja perekonomian. Sementara itu kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor di sektor industri non pertanian menurunkan PDB riil. Kebijakan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan meningkatkan kinerja perekonomian dengan besaran yang lebih besar. Insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan menurun namun di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional meningkat akibat kebijakan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian. Kebijakan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian menunjukkan penurunan insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan dan di tingkat nasional namun netral di perdesaan. Sementara itu penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian menunjukkan penurunan kemiskinan di perkotaan, di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional. Kebijakanan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan biaya transaksi perdagangan menurunkan insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan, di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional dengan keuntungan lebih besar pada rumah tangga di perdesaan.Ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan di perdesaan meningkat akibat penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian, penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan menurun akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan serta netral akibat gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan. Sementara itu ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan di perkotaan meningkat akibat penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan menurun akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan serta netral akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan.

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This study aims to evaluate the policy to reduce import tariffs, reduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and reduced trade transaction costs. Author examines the impact of these policies on the performance of the economy, poverty, and inequality of income distribution using computational general equilibrium approach.

The authors found that the policy of reduction in import tariffs in the agricultural sector and in the agricultural industry sector improve economic performance. While the policy to reduction in import tariffs on non-agricultural sector lowers real GDP. Policy to reduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and trade transaction costs increase the performance of the economy. The incidence of poverty in urban and rural decline but at a national level rise due to tariffs reduction policies in the agricultural sector. Tariffs reduction policies in the agricultural sector showed a decrease in the incidence of poverty in urban areas and at the national level but is neutral in the rural areas. While the policy to reduction in import tariffs on non agricultural sector showed a decline in urban poverty, in rural areas and at the national level. Policy to eduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and trade transaction costs reduce the incidence of poverty in urban areas, in rural areas and at the national level with a greater advantage in rural households.

Inequality of income distribution in rural areas increased due to tariffs reduction in agriculture sector, tariffs reduction in agriculture industrial sector and decreased due to tariffs reduction policies in the non agricultural sector, reduction in trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture industry sector and trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the non-agricultural industry sector and trade transaction costs as well as neutral due to the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector and trade transaction costs. While the inequality of income distribution in urban areas increased due to tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector and trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture industry sector and trade transaction costs and decrease due to reduction in import tariffs of non agricultural sector, the combined tariffs reduction in the non-agricultural industry sector and trade transaction costs as well as neutral due to tariffs reduction in the agricultural sector, reduction in trade transaction costs."

"ABSTRAKDisertasi ini meneliti dampak sistem cukai ad valorem, spesifik dan hybrid terhadap harga dan konsumsi rokok. Hipotesis utama H0 pada disertasi ini adalah sistem cukai berdampak pada harga rokok, di mana dampak sistem cukai spesifik terhadap harga lebih besar dibanding ad valorem atau hybrid. Perubahan terhadap harga selanjutnya berdampak pada perubahan konsumsi rokok. Sedangkan pertanyaan penelitian ini adalah seberapa besar beban cukai digeser ke harga pada masing-masing sistem cukai dan sistem cukai mana yang berdampak besar pada konsumsi rokok. Data panel dari 114 negara pada tahun 2008 dan 2010 digunakan sebagai analisis antar negara. Sedangkan data panel konsumsi per pabrikan dari 3.294 pabrik dalam periode bulanan dari tahun 2005-2010 dipakai untuk mengestimasi permintaan masing-masing merk rokok di Indonesia, fokus pada periode ini karena Indonesia pernah menerapkan ketiga sistem cukai tersebut secara beruntun.Pada analisis cross country maupun data cukai per perusahaan di Indonesia, diawali dengan dengan model incidence tax konvensional yakni memasukan variabel beban cukai ke dalam persamaan harga dengan tidak memasukan faktor sistem cukai. Pada model II analisis incidence tax dilakukan dengan memasukan beban cukai pada masing-masing sistem cukai. Hasil estimasi secara keseluruhan menunjukan fenomena incidence tax yang over shifting dimana sistem cukai spesifik menaikan harga lebih besar dibandingkan dengan sistem cukai lainnya.Analisis selanjutnya adalah mengestimasi transmisi sistem cukai ke konsumsi melalui harga, analisis dampak sistem cukai ini menggunakan metode 2SLS dan 3SLS. Persamaan konsumsi rokok dimana variabel harga rokok merupakan variabel endogen yang dipengaruhi oleh masing-masing sistem cukai. Untuk analisis permintaan rokok di Indonesia lebih lanjut yakni memasukan faktor adiksi dengan memperhitungkan lag konsumsi periode sebelumnya ke dalam model. Hasil estimasi terhadap model permintaan konsumsi rokok antar negara menunjukan bahwa sistem spesifik berdampak positif paling besar terhadap harga dibandingkan sistem ad valorem ataupun hybrid.Demikian pula hasil estimasi pada permintaan konsumsi rokok di Indonesia menunjukan hasil yang sama. Sehingga hipotesis bahwa sistem spesifik paling besar dampaknya dalam menaikan harga rokok serta sistem spesifik paling besar dampaknya dalam menurunkan konsumsi rokok terbukti didukung baik oleh data cross country maupun data Indonesia.

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ABSTRACT

This dissertation examines the impact of ad valorem, hybrid and specific excise system to cigarette price and consumption. The main hypothesis i.e. there is an impact of excise system to the price of tobacco, in which specific system has greater impact than ad valorem or hybrid system. Price change has an impact to cigarette consumption. The research question is to answer what fraction of excise is passed on to consumers in each excise systems and which one of excise system has the greatest negative impact on consumption, which is important to know, when country makes choice on appropriate excise system policy in order to reform their excise system for tobacco control.

Panel data from 114 countries on the year 2008 and 2010 is explored for cross countries demand. Whereas brands consumption panel data of 3.294 firms of monthly periods from 2005-2010 is explored for demand estimation in Indonesia. In this period Indonesia has implemented ad valorem, hybrid and specific excise system consecutively.

With cross countries data and brands consumption data in Indonesia, in the first model conventional analysis, this study explores the impact of increasing excise on price without including excise system. In the Model II, this study analyzes model by including burden of excise in each excise syste. The sstimation results shows that incidence tax is over shifting which specific excise system increase price more than other excise systems.

Furthermore, this study estimates excise system transmission to the consumption through the price, by using 2SLS and 3SLS. In the model of cigarette consumption, the price of cigarette is an endogenous variable which is affected by each of the excise systems. This study considers addiction factor by including lag period of consumption into the model. In the cross country analysis, the result of cigarette consumption demand model indicates that specific excise system has greatest negative impact in reducing consumption than any other excise system.

Similarly, in the case of Indonesia shows the same results. Therefore the hypothesis that the specific system has the highest impact in raising the price of cigarettes as well as reducing cigarette consumption supported by the Indonesia and the cross country data."

"Studi ini bertujuan untuk mengukur nilai kualitas hidup kota berdasarkan besarnya kompensasi yang bersedia dibayarkan rumah tangga terhadap kenyamanan fasilitas publik kota. Pengukuran kenyamanan dilakukan dengan menggunakan model Hedonik Berger-Blomquist-Hoehn yang dikembangkan. Hasil pengukuran tersebut digunakan untuk Menganalisis perkembangan nilai kualitas hidup kota, mengidentifikasi sektor-sektor publik yang menjadi sumber perubahan kenyamanan kota serta menganalisis variasi kenyamanan antar kota. Pengukuran dilakukan terhadap 28 kota di Pulau Jawa tahun 2002 dan 2005. Pengukuran indeks kualitas hidup menggunakan basis data Survei Ekonomi Nasional (susenas) core dan Potensi Desa (podes). Jumlah total individu yang libatkan pada estimasi model hedonik upah adalaha sebesar 30.007 individu tahun 2002 dan 34.760 individu tahun 2005. Adapun otal rumah tangga ang dilibatkan adalah sebesar 21.439 rumah tangga pada tahun 2002 da 24.530 rumah tangga pada tahun 2005. Hasil pengukuran IKH menunjukkan bahwa kualitas hidup kota di Pulau Jawa pada tahun 2002 dan tahun 2005 sangat bervariasi. Beberapa kota mengalami peningkatan kualitas hidup seperti Kota Tangerang, Magelang, Surakarta, Salatiga dan Semarang. Penurunan kualitas hidup hampir terjadi di semua kota besar diantaranya kota-kota di DKI Jakarta, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Bandung, dan Malang mengalami penurunan kualitas hidup. Perbedaan kualitas hidup antar kota berpotensi mendorong terjadinya migrasi. Rumah tangga cenderung pindah menuju kota yang kualitas hidupnya tinggi. Guna membatasi masuknya migran, pemerintah kota dapat mengenakan kebijakan (sejenis pajak) kepada migran maksimum senilai perbedaan kualitas hidup antar kota tujuan dan asal migrasi. Sebaliknya jika beniat mendorong masuknya migran, pemerintah dapat mengenakan kebijakan (sejenis subsidi), minimun sebesar perbedaan kualitas hidup antar kota tujuan dan asal migrasi. Selain mengetahui nilai kenyamanan kota secara total, analisis dekomposisi memungkinkan pemerintah mengidentifikasi sektor-sektor apa saja yang memberikan kontribusi signifikan terhadap perubahan kualitas hidup suatu kota, baik secara menyeluruh maupun parsial. Analisis tersebut juga mampu menunjukkan pergeseran peranan masing-masing sektor publik antara waktu. Sebagai studi aplikasi pertama yang mengukur nilai kualitas hidup atau kenyamana kota di Indonesia, penulis berharap studi-studi lanjutan dapat dikembangkan di masa akan datang guna menganalisis hubungan antara kualitas hidup dengan variabel-variabel ekonomi lainnya, seperti migrasi, investasi daerah, pertumbuhan kota.

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The objective of the study is to measure the quality of life according to the amount a household is willing to pay as a compensation for the public facilities in their cities. The level of amenities is measured by using Hedonic Model developed by Berger-Blomquist-Hoehn. The result will be used in analyzing the progress of the quality of life in each town, identifying certain public sectors which drive changes in amenities level as well as analyzing the amenities variation among the cities. The study, which measures the quality of life of 28 cities in Java during 2002 and 2005, is making use of data from National Social Economic Survey (susenas) and Village Potential Statistics (podes). In total, thc number of individual observation involved in hedonic wage model estimation was 30,007 in 2002 and 34,760 in 2005. ln addition, the number of households being involved in 2002 and 2005 amounted to 21,439 and 24,530 households respectively. The result of the quality of life index measurement shows that quality of life in cities in Java both in 2002 and 2005 quite vary. Among the cities which experienced an improved quality of life including Tangerang, Magelang, Surakarta, Salatiga and Semarang. In the contrary, a decrease in quality of life almost took place in all other big cities such as Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Bandung, Malang and all cities in Jakarta Provinces. In fact, the difference level of quality of life among the cities may potentially drive migration in which people tend to move to other city with higher quality of life. ln order to restrict migration to their town, the local government CBI) apply certain policy (such as tax) to the migrants as much as maximum the quality of life?s difference between the migrants? city and the destination city. However if local government wants to attract migrants coming to their towns, they can apply a favorable policy such as certain subsidy to the migrants at least as much as the quality of life?s difference between the migrants? city and the destination city. Through decomposition analysis, the government may not only able to know the city?s quality of life in total but also able to identify each sector?s contribution to the quality of life?s changes within the city. The analysis can show any changes in each public sector's role every year. As the first study which measures quality of life index in Indonesia, the author is expecting some relevant studies which take in to account other variables such as migration, regional investment and city?s growth to be done in the near fiiture."