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"This paper describes the encounters that Italian travellers, explorers, and traders had with the peoples of the Malay world at the turn of the century. In particular, it focuses on the linguistic descriptions and observations made by Italian explorers of the languages spoken in the places they visited and included in their travel writings. In addition to the pioneering work of Pigafetta, the Italian scribe who followed Magellan on his voyage around the world and produced the first “Italian-Malay vocabulary” in 1521, other linguistic descriptions and observations were made by Giovanni Gaggino, a merchant who compiled an Italian-Malay dictionary in Singapore, Odoardo Beccari, a naturalist who offered reflections on the Malay spoken in Borneo, and Celso Cesare Moreno, a ship captain and adventurer. Elio Modigliani, in his travels to Nias, Enggano, Mentawai, and the Batak country, provided detailed information on the local languages spoken in these islands in North and West Sumatra, while Giovanni Battista Cerruti, an explorer and ship captain who visited Singapore, Batavia, and the Malay Peninsula, commented on the languages, as did Emilio Cerruti, who travelled to the Moluccas and Papua. This paper focuses on how these languages were described and perceived by these nineteenth-century Italian travellers. It concludes that these explorers were all united by a common necessity, namely the importance of speaking local languages in order to be able to interact with the people they met on their travels. Malay, in particular, was always viewed positively as an international language, a powerful tool for communicating, learning, and interacting with others, and a beautiful language. Conversely, the other minority languages were seen as poor and simple, but still a powerful tool to overcome barriers and lay the foundations for intercultural communication."

"The book explores profiles of culture-management axis through secondary literature study in various languages of the East, empirical research conducted with nearly one thousand managers and 375 organizations in India. The effective management in the next millennium will be mission-based strategic integration of the team, combined with people-sensitive approach. In spite of growth of hi-tech, the emotional human issues will dominate the coming decades. Happiness and health in institutions will largely depend on successive sacrifice of greed and possessiveness in creation of wealth for human development. The meltdown in the US and its repercussions in the world are direct outcome of failure to learn these lessons. Already the world is witnessing acute consciousness of interdependence and universal linkages. This is the quintessence of Vedanta, Zen-Buddhism and Sufi order in the Eastern globe. West-dominated management technology must now synthesize with Eastern intuition and values. The book is divided into three parts. First part delves into East-West psyche. Second part presents integration-affection model as potential approach to effective management. Third part shows the author’s successful applications of the approach in different organizations while working as chief executive or consultant."

"the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings.;the main claim of the present study is that regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention orientation) is an important explanatory variable of cross-cultural differences in actual and seld-reported achievement related behaviors and preference, which include a component of autonomy. its adds explained variance in behaviors above and beyond beyond that of individualism/collectivism (I/C), and mediates the relations between I/C and behavior. three studies are reported, the first compared israeli jews and arabs on minimal inctiation (n=255), the second compared israeli jews and japanese on creativity (n=92), and the third compared swiss, mexican, and indonesian samples on preference for mastery goals in education (n-488). all three studies demonstrated the ability of regulatory focus scales to distinguish between cultures and to serve as meaningful predictors of actual and self reported achievement related behaviors. the measured I/C scales were found to be less relevant to behavior prediction than was regulatory focus. in most studies, regulatory focus scales mediated the relations between some of the I/C scales and behavior. the diversity of the measured behaviors and cultures supports the ecological validity of the findings."