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"Latar belakang: Uji kuantitatif merupakan uji yang penting dalam memonitor penatalaksanaan pasien yang terinfeksi HIV-1 atau yang menderita AIDS. Tahap penting dalam pengembangan uji tersebut adalah tersedianya RNA HIV-1 standar. Oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini transkripsi RNA HIV-1 dioptimasi untuk menghasilkan RNA HIV-1 standar. Metode: Menggunakan teknik PCR, DNA HIV-1 diamplifi kasi dari pNL43 menggunakan sepasang primer yang spesifi k pada daerah yang dikonservasi dari gen Gag HIV-1. Produk PCR kemudian diklon ke dalam pBluescript II KS . Plasmid rekombinan dipotong menggunakan enzim restriksi EcoRI. Plasmid yang telah dipotong kemudian digunakan sebagai cetakan untuk reaksi transkripsi RNA. Reaksi RT-PCR dan PCR dilakukan secara bersamaan untuk mengkonfi rmasi adanya fragmen RNA yang telah ditranskripsi. Hasil: Fragmen DNA sebesar 115 bp dari daerah gen Gag HIV-1 telah berhasil diklon ke dalam pBluescript II SK dengan orientasi yang benar. Reaksi transkripsi RNA juga berhasil dilakukan. Hasil transkripsi RNA telah dikonfi rmasi dan menunjukkan hasil transkripsi RNA yang benar. Kesimpulan: Dalam studi ini telah berhasil dilakukan konstruksi plasmid rekombinan yang mengandung daerah yang dikonservasi dari gen Gag HIV-1, dan RNA HIV-1 juga berhasil ditranskripsi secara in vitro.

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AbstractBackground: The quantitative assays are important tests in the management of patients with HIV-1/AIDS. The important step in developing the assay is the availability of the standard HIV-1 RNA. For this purpose, we optimized in vitro HIV-1RNA transcription to produce the standard HIV-1 RNA. Methods: The HIV-1 DNA was amplifi ed from pNL43 by PCR using a primer pair that was specifi c for conserved region of HIV-1 Gag gene. The PCR product was further cloned into pBluescript II KS . The recombinant plasmid was restricted with EcoRI enzyme. Then, the linearized plasmid was used as template for RNA transcription. RT-PCR and PCR were performed simultaneously for confi rmation of synthesized RNA fragment. Results: A 115 bp DNA of HIV-1 Gag gene has been cloned into pBluescript II SK with the exact true orientation. The reaction of the RNA transcription was also successfully performed. The RNA transcripts have been confi rmed and showed the accuracy of the transcripts. Conclusion: we successfuly constructed the recombinant plasmid containing a conserved region of HIV-1 Gag gene, and the HIV-1 RNA has been transcribed in vitro as well. "

"Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-I (HIV-1) merupakan penyebab sindroma penurunan sistem imun tubuh yang disebut dengan Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Infeksi HIV-I di dunia dan Indonesia cenderung meningkat. Pemeriksaan yang cepat dan spesifik diperlukan untuk mencegah penyebaran infeksi HIV-I. Berbagai teknik telah dikembangkan untuk deteksi infeksi HIV-I. Pada penelitian ini dikembangkan pemeriksaan RT-PCR HIV-1 Mikrobiologi FKUI (in-house RT-PCR) untuk mendapatkan uji alternatif deteksi HIV-1. Sebanyak 46 plasma dan serum kelompok berperilaku risiko tinggi yang berkunjung ke klinik VCT . RSUP Sanglah Denpasar, telah diperiksa dalam penelitian ini. Serum diperiksa dengan 3 kit rapid test yang berbeda yaitu DetermineTM HIV-1/2 (Abbott), ImmunoCombR HIV 1 & 2 BiSpot (Organics), dan SerodieR HIV-1/2 (Fujirebio Inc.). Plasma diuji dengan pemeriksaan RTPCR generasi I menggunakan primer spesifik terhadap daerah gag dan RT-PCR generasi 2 menggunakan primer spesifik terhadap daerah protease dari genom HIV-1. Hasil rapid test menunjukkan dari 46 sampel, sebanyak 26 serum (56,5%) reaktif dan 20 serum (43,5%) non-reaktif. Tingkat sensitivitas, spesifisitas, nilai duga positif, dan nilai duga negatif RT-PCR generasi 1 secara berturut-turut adalah 80,8%, 95%, 95,5%, dan 79,2%, sedangkan rasio kemungkinan positif dan negatif adalah 16,2, dan 0,2. Pemeriksaan RTPCR generasi 2 menunjukkan tingkat sensitivitas 65,4%, spesifisitas 90%, nilai duga positif 89,5%, nilai duga negatif 66,7%, rasio kemungkinan positif 6,5, dan rasio kemungkinan negatif 0,4. Teknik RT-PCR yang menggunakan primer tersebut dapat mendeteksi HIV pada semua stadium klinis WHO pada kelompok ini. Sensitivitas dan spesifisitas RT-PCR generasi 1 lebih baik daripada RT-PCR generasi 2, tetapi, masih lebih rendah daripada baku emas, Secara keseluruhan, RT-PCR pada penelitian ini belum dapat direkomendasikan sebagai uji altematif baik uji skrining maupun uji konfirmasi dalam mendeteksi infeksi HIV-1.

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Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) can cause decrease of immune response which is called Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). HIV-l infection in the world and Indonesia tends to increase. Many techniques were developed to detect HIV-1 infection. A specific and rapid diagnosis is needed to prevent transmission of HIV-1 infection. In this study, we performed RT-PCR HIV-1 Microbiology FKUI (in-house RT-PCR) as an alternative test to detect HIV-1. Forty six plasmas and serums from high risk behavior group who visited VCT Clinic Sanglah General Hospital, Denpasar were used in this study. Serums were tested with 3 different rapid test kits i.e. Determine ° IIIV-112 (Abbott), immunoComb HIV I & 2 BiSpot (Orgenics), and Serodia ' HIV-112 (Fujirebio Inc.). Plasmas were tested with I generation RT-PCR which used specific primers to gag region in HIV-1 genome and specific primers to protease region in IIIV-1 genome for 2nd generation RT-PCR. Results of rapid test demonstrated 26 serums (56.5%) were reactive and 20 serums (43.5%) were non-reactive. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of 1st generation RT-PCR was 80.8%, 95%, 95.5%, 79.2%, whereas positive likelihood ratio (LR +) and negative likelihood ratio (LR -) was 16.2, and 0.2, respectively. The 2"d generation RT-PCR showed sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, LR (+), and LR (-) was 65.4%, 90%, 89.5%, 66.7%, 6.5, and 0.4, respectively. These in-house RT-PCR could detect HIV-1 in all WHO clinical staging in this group. This study showed that lsi generation RT-PCR gives better results than 2"d generation RT-PCR. But still inferior than rapid test to detect HIV-1 infection. Overall, RT-PCR in this study has not been recommended yet as an alternative test to detect HIV-I infection."

"Kejadian AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) yang disebabkan Human Immunodeficiency Virus tipe 1 (HIV-1) terus meningkat setiap tahunnya. Pencegahan penularan virus HIV-1 masih sulit karena belum ada vaksin yang telah ditemukan untuk mencegah penularan atau transmisi virus ini. Selain itu, faktor lainnya adalah jarangnya diagnostik yang tersedia untuk awal infeksi, serta variasi genetik virus HIV-1 yang meningkat dengan cepat. Penelitian bertujuan untuk mengembangkan virus dengan menggunakan klona galur sel T CD4 yaitu CEM-GFP dengan virus HIV-1 CRF01_AE untuk mendapatkan virus dengan sifat genetik yang relatif homogen dan sifat virus yang sama. Ekspresi virus dalam sel target dimonitor melalui induksi green fluorescent protein yang akan diekspresikan oleh CEM-GFP ketika sel ini terinfeksi oleh virus HIV-1. Infeksi dilakukan dengan dua metode yaitu direct cell to cell transmission dan cell-free virus infection, hasil infeksi kedua metode ini dibandingkan fluoresensinya dengan mikroskop fluoresensi dan pengukuran ekspresi GFP dengan sitometer.Setelah 7 hari kultur, pengamatan dengan mikroskop fluoresensi menunjukkan bahwa sel terinfeksi dengan metode direct cell to cell transmission lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan cell-free virus infection. Pengukuran ekspresi GFP dengan sitometer pun menunjukkan hal serupa dimana ekspresi GFP sel terinfeksi dengan metode direct cell to cell transmission lebih banyak dibanding dengan cell-free virus infection. Untuk melihat apakah virus berhasil dikeluarkan dari sel terinfeksi dilakukan dengan metode Polymerase Chain Reaction. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa virus telah berhasil terdeteksi pada supernatan kultur sel CEM-GFP terinfeksi virus HIV-1.

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The incidents of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) that caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) are increasing every year. The prevention of HIV transmission is still difficult to be done because HIV vaccine has not been found yet. Besides, another factor in HIV therapy is the rare early diagnostic available and the genetic variation of HIV-1 virus that increased rapidly. This study was aimed for propagating virus by using CEM-GFP clones, the derivative of CD4 T cells infected with CRF01_AE for obtaining virus with relatively homogen genetic variation and possessing the same characteristic. The virus expression in the target cell was observed by the induction of green fluorescent protein expressed by CEM-GFP when this cell was infected by HIV-Virus. The infection was held by two methods, cell-to-cell transmission and cellfree virus infection, the fluorescent of infected cell of this two methods was compared with fluorescent microscope and GFP expression assay with cytometer.

Within 7 days of culture, observation with fluorescent microscope showed that the infected cells of direct cell-to-cell transmission method was higher than the cellfree virus infection. GFP expression assay also showed the same result. The GFP expression of infected cells with direct cell-to-cell transmission was higher than cell-free virus infection. To investigate whether the virus was released from the infected cells, Polymerase Chain Reaction, were applied in this study. The result showed that the cell-free virus can be detected in culture supernatant of CEMGFP cells infected with HIV-1."

"Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome disebabkan oleh infeksi Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) terhadap sel-sel T CD4+, limfosit, dan makrofag. Sebanyak 90.7% penderita HIV di Indonesia terinfeksi oleh HIV-1 subtipe CRF01_AE. Protein Gag P7 yang dikode oleh gen gag p7 dan terdapat di dalam genom HIV-1 merupakan protein yang dapat digunakan sebagai obat antiretrovirus dan kandidat antigen untuk sistem diagnostik. Penelitian bertujuan untuk memperoleh fragmen DNA gag p7 (nukleokapsid) HIV-1 yang berukuran 210 pb. Fragmen gen gag p7 diperoleh dari hasil Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) dengan menggunakan primer forward AE_p7F dan primer reverse AE_p7R. Cetakan DNA (template) berasal dari RNA virus yang diambil dari serum pasien penderita HIV-1 di Indonesia. Hasil visualisasi pada gel poliakrilamida 10% menunjukkan bahwa fragmen gen gag p7 (nukleokapsid) berhasil teramplifikasi dengan ukuran 210 pb.

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Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome caused by human immunodeficiency virus infections to the CD4+ cells, lymphocyte, and macrophage. More than 90.7 % HIV patient in Indonesia were infected by HIV-1 subtype CRF01_AE. The Gag P7 protein coded by gag p7 gene which found in HIV genome was known as protein in which could be used for antiretroviral drugs (ARV) and diagnosis of HIV-1 infections. The purpose of research is to get DNA fragment of gag p7 (nucleocapsid) gene of HIV-1 which has length 210 bp. Fragment of gag p7 gene could be gotten from the process of reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in which use primer forward AE_p7F and primer reverse AE_p7R. The templates is RNA virus that taken from patient?s serum of HIV-1 in Indonesia. The electrophoresis visualization shown that fragment of gag p7 (nucleocapsid) gene was success amplified in which has length 210 bp."

"Treatment with antiretroviral drugs is the most clinically successful strategy for preventing HIV progression to AIDS. But some patients who have received antiretroviral treatment of undesirable effects are the presence of mutations and virus selection reacted to one or more antiretroviral drugs. Drug resistance testing is extremely important for the management of ART therapy failure in HIV patients. The commercial genotypic tests are too expensive to be used in low income countries. In house method for reverse transcriptase and protease was available in Indonesia. The objective of this study is to develop in house method for integrase inhibitor and evaluated by the analytical sensitivity and specificity, accuracy and reproducibility. First, primer designed and followed by testing primer in specificity comparing to Hepatitis C HCV RNA and total cellular RNA from PBMC. Sensitivity assay was assessed by serial dilution of HIV viral load and several subtypes of HIV 1. Precision and linearity were carried out on 3 replicates of samples from sensitivity. Accuracy was assessed by comparing 5 samples from HIVDR proficiency testing TAQAS and sequences generated by in house method. The primers specific only to HIV. Stable test sensitivity up to 1000 copies ml viral load and sensitive to all tested HIV 1 subtypes. accuracy shows 100 sequence results identic with TAQAS panels.

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Terapi antiretroviral merupakan strategi yang paling berhasil secara klinis untuk mencegah progresi HIV ke AIDS. Tetapi pada beberapa pasien yang telah menerima pengobatan antiretroviral terjadi mutasi dan seleksi virus akibat pengobatan. Uji genotyping sangat penting untuk manajemen kegagalan terapi ARV pada pasien HIV. Tes genotyping komersial terlalu mahal untuk digunakan di negara berkembang seperti Indonesia. Metode in-house untuk reverse transcriptase dan protease telah tersedia di Indonesia. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengembangkan metode in-house untuk inhibitor integrase dan dievaluasi dengan sensitivitas dan spesifisitas, akurasi, presisi reprodusibilitas. Pertama, primer dirancang dan diikuti dengan pengujian primer pada spesifisitas yang membandingkan RNA Hepatitis C HCV dan total RNA seluler dari PBMC. Uji sensitivitas dinilai dengan dilusi berseri viral load HIV dan beberapa subtipe HIV-1. Presisi dan linearitas dilakukan pada 3 ulangan sampel dari sensitivitas. Akurasi dinilai dengan membandingkan 5 sampel dari uji profisiensi HIVDR TAQAS dan sekuen yang dihasilkan dengan metode in-house. Primer hanya spesifik untuk HIV. Sensitivitas tes stabil sampai viral load 1000 kopi/mL dan sensitif terhadap semua subtipe HIV-1 yang diuji. Keakuratan menunjukkan hasil urutan 100 identik dengan panel TAQAS."

"ABSTRACT

Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a retroviral virus that causes deadly disease, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). The virus that mutates so fast, causes no drugs available to cure this disease totally yet. One of enzyme targets that can be inhibited to block the replication of this virus is HIV-1 protease. Inhibition to this enzyme causes the blocking of protein cleavage in virus maturation process. Several xanthone compounds from Garcinio mongostono Linn., a-, 􀀪-. dan y­mangostin, have shown inhibition activity to this enzyme. The structure, which is non-peptide based, gives possibility to different mechanism than other inhibitors. This research's aim is to search the binding modes of mangostin analogues. The method used in this research is in silica molecular docking. The result shows that there are two binding modes with higher affinity in the hydrophobic pocket active site (llG AutoDock 4 = (-9,64)-(-9.89) kcal/mo!; llG AutoDock Vina= (-8,7)-(-9,4) kcal/mo!) and molecular surface site which still shows good affinity (llG AutoDock 4 = (-5,85)·(-6,06) kcal/mol; llG AutoDock Vina = (-5,3)·(·5,9) kcal/mol)."

"Dengue sebagai salah satu penyakit mematikan dan terlah berevolusi sejak 50 tahun yang lalu. Virus yang menyebabkan penyakit ini, termasuk kedalam kategori B Arthropod Borne Virus (Arboviroses) pada genus Flavivirus, famili Flaviviridae, dan memiliki 5 jenis serotipe, yaitu; Dengue Virus (DENV)-1, Dengue Virus DENV-2, Dengue Virus DENV-3, Dengue Virus DENV-4 dan, Dengue Virus DENV-5. Penyakit ini sering disalah artikan sebagai penyakit flu karena kemiripan gejalanya mampu merenggut nyawa apabila sudah masuk ke tahap yang cukup berat dengan gejala-gejala yang cukup serius. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan senyawa peptida siklis komersil yang berpotensi sebagai kandidat obat untuk memerangi virus dengue. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan melalui metode in silico dengan menggunakan metode virtual screening, molecular docking dan dengan target protein viral dari virus DENV NS5 RNA-Polimerase. Penambatan ligan peptida siklis didapatkan berdasarkan struktur 3D dari virus DENV NS5 RNA-Polimerase yang diperoleh dari Protein Data Bank serta menggunakan perbandingan ligan standar yang merupakan senyawa yang telah diketahui memberi efek inhibisi terhadap DENV NS5 RNA polimerase. Kemudian, dilakukan pemodelan menggunakan perangkat lunak MOE 2014.09. Kemudian hasil yang diperoleh selanjutnya dilakukan proses uji ADMET untuk mengetahui tingkat keamanan dari senyawa tersebut pada makhluk hidup. Dari penelitian ini didapatkan beberapa senyawa inhibitor yang baik untuk menghambat pertumbuhan dan replikasi dari virus dengue. Senyawa seperti N-acyl-Taurine Geodiataurine, Atazanafir, dan Nostoperin dinilai cukup baik dari segi stabilitas, energi ikatan, dan sifat admet.

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Fever is one of the deadliest disease that spreads through mosquitoes. This disease has claimed many victims since the beginning of its development 30 years ago. It belongs to category B Arthropod Borne Virus (Arboviroses) which belongs to the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and has 5 types of serotypes, namely; (Dengue Virus) DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4 and, DENV-5. The disease, which is often mistaken for flu because of the similarity in symptoms, can take lives, is quite severe with serious conversations, such as severe stomach problems, persistent, constantly rapid, bleeding gums, due to anxiety. In this study, an updated discovery will be sought which is requested as a drug to release the dengue virus. This research was carried out through a method in silico using pharmacophore, virtual screening, molecular docking and fragment growth with virus target proteins from the DENV NS5 RNA-Polymerase virus. Tethering of commercial cyclic peptide ligand molecules is obtained based on the 3D structure of the DENV NS5 RNA-Polymerase virus obtained from the Protein Data Bank with code (PDB ID: 2J7U) with standard ligands obtained from company data for sale of related peptides and then modeled using the device software MOE 2014.10. Then the results are carried out growing fragments in order to get an updated composition. "

"Infeksi Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) masih menjadi perhatian bagi masyarakat luas karena tidak dapat disembuhkan secara sempurna. Penelitian sebelumnya menyatakan bahwa virus HIV masih dapat ditemukan di jenazah sampai beberapa waktu setelah kematian, tanpa diketahui apakah masih mampu bereplikasi dan menginfeksi orang. Karena itu, penelitian ini ingin mengetahui kemampuan replikasi virus HIV di dalam sel darah putih secara in vitro dengan meniru kondisi seperti yang terjadi pada proses setelah kematian yaitu tidak terpapar oksigen. Penelitian menggunakan disain eksperimental dengan menggunakan darah 'Orang dengan HIV-AIDS' (ODHA) yang masih hidup untuk menggantikan darah jenazah ODHA terinfeksi HIV. Hal ini dikarenakan sulitnya mendapatkan sampel darah yang dapat diteliti hingga rentang waktu 48 jam dengan suhu 26-32°C seperti suhu yang lazim terjadi pada umumnya jenazah di Indonesia. Darah terinfeksi HIV tersebut diperiksa 'viral load' dan diambil sel darah putihnya. Sel darah putih tersebut dicampur kembali dengan plasma darahnya, dan ditutup minyak goreng yang sudah dipanaskan agar tidak terjadi paparan oksigen untuk mendekati kondisi postmortem. Suspensi dikultur dan supernatannya diperiksa dengan 'Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction' (RT PCR) untuk melihat hasil replikasi virus HIV. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan, virus HIV masih bereplikasi sampai waktu 48 jam setelah paparan oksigen dihentikan. Selain itu terdapat perubahan morfologi sel darah putih yaitu efek 'cytopathic effect' (CPE) pada sel di dalam kultur yang menunjukkan adanya infeksi antar sel.

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HIV infection is still a community problem that cannot be solved perfectly. Recent studies show HIV virus can still be found in dead bodies, altough there were no evidence that indicate HIV infection from dead bodies. This research aims to elaborate HIV virus replication in leucocyte in vitro imitating dead bodies physiologic condition of oxygen deprivation.

Research is conducted using experimental design using blood samples taken from living HIV-infected persons to substitute for HIV-infected dead bodies. This subtitution held because of the difficulty to obtain blood sample from dead bodies, and studied until 48 hours postmortem on 26-32°C. HIV-infected blood was examined for viral load. The leucocyte were separated from the blood and mixed with blood plasma. This suspension stored in the tube and the upper surface added with heated cooking oil to prevent oxygen exposure. The suspension was centrifuged, the leucocyte were cultured. After cultured, the supernatan was scanned with Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT PCR) to detect replication of HIV.

The replication of HIV virus were detected up to 48 hours. The study also found morphologic changes of leucocyte due to cytopathic effect which showed cell-to-cell infections."

"ABSTRACTUntuk mengantisipasi kemungkinan penggunaan obat anti-integrase sebagai pengobatan infeksi HIV-1 di Indonesia, pengembangan uji resistensi genotipik untuk anti-integrase sangat penting dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi profil genetik resistensi obat untuk galur HIV-1 di Indonesia. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengamplifikasi daerah sasaran dalam gen integrase yang mengandung mutasi genetik yang diketahui dapat menimbulkan resistensi terhadap obat anti-integrase dari HIV-1 subtipe CRF01_AE dan B di Indonesia. Sebelas sampel plasma dari individu terinfeksi dengan HIV-1 diperoleh dari arsip di PRVKP FKUI-RSCM. Salah satu sampel plasma mengandung HIV-1 subtipe B sedangkan sampel plasma lainnya mengandung subtype CRF01_AE. Daerah sasaran untuk semua sampel telah diamplifikasi melalui RT-PCR, dengan suhu anil 55 C menggunakan pasangan primer AE_POL 4086F dan AE_POL 5232R yang telah dirancang oleh VCPRC FKUI -RSCM. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini, 18,2 2/11 dari sampel berhasil diamplifikasi melalui RT-PCR satu langkah. Pasangan primer tersebut efektif untuk mengamplifikasi wilayah sasaran dalam urutan gen integrase untuk subtipe B 100 ; 1/1 tetapi memiliki efektivitas yang rendah 10 , 1/10 untuk subtipe CRF01_AE. Primer pasangan dapat digunakan untuk mengamplifikasi wilayah sasaran di HIV-1 subtipe CRF01_AE dan B di Indonesia. Namun, optimasi kondisi PCR dan jumlah sampel yang lebih banyak diperlukan untuk menentukan efektivitasnya dengan akurat.

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ABSTRACTIn order to anticipate the potential use of anti integrase drugs in Indonesia for treatment of HIV 1 infection, the development of a drug resistance genotyping assay for anti integrase is crucial in identifying the genetic drug resistance profile of Indonesian HIV 1 strains. This experiment was aimed to amplify a target region in the integrase gene of Indonesian HIV 1 subtypes CRF01 AE and B that contain genetic mutations known to confer resistance to anti integrase drug. Eleven archived plasma samples from individuals living with HIV 1 were obtained from VCPRC FKUI RSCM laboratory. One of the plasma sample contain HIV 1 subtype B while the remaining plasma samples contain subtype CRF01 AE. The target region for all samples were amplified through RT PCR, with an annealing temperature of 55 C using the primer pair AE POL 4086F and AE POL 5232R that were designed by VCPRC FKUI RSCM. Based on the results of this experiment, 18.2 2 11 of the samples were successfully amplified through one step RT PCR. The primer pair was effective in the amplifying the target region in integrase gene sequence for subtype B 100 1 1 but it has a low efficacy 10 , 1 10 for subtype CRF01 AE. In conclusion, the primer pair can be used to amplify the target region in Indonesian HIV 1 strains subtypes CRF01 AE and B. However, optimization of PCR condition and the use of more samples are required to determine its efficacy accurately."

"In this book, expert HIV researchers critically review every aspect of this highly evolving and topical subject. The opening chapters deal with the epidemiology, global magnitude and biologic mechanisms of HIV-1 transmission from mother to child through breastfeeding and include considerations of the virus (quantity, compartments, characteristics) and the host (genetic, immunity-innate, cellular, humoral). The effects of breastfeeding on the HIV-infected mother’s health and nutritional status, and the social and cultural issues associated with the practice of breastfeeding are also discussed. The next few chapters provide cutting-edge reviews of the latest approaches to prevention of HIV transmission to the infant through breastfeeding, including antiretroviral strategies, nutritional and immune-based approaches, and treatment of expressed breast milk. The remaining chapters provide a fascinating review of the many iterations this subject has received, as reflected in the several different sets of guidelines for infant feeding by HIV-infected mothers issued by the World Health Organization, and a debate by leading scientists on whether HIV-infected mothers should breastfeed their infants-in resource-limited and in resource-rich settings. A comprehensive overview of the current state of implementing the new evidence for prevention of breastfeeding transmission of HIV all over the world is also presented."