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"Now in its third edition, this comprehensive volume is recognized as the most authoritative review of the epidemiology of infectious disease. Divided into five sections that cover methods in infectious disease epidemiology, airborne transmission, diarrheal diseases, blood and body fluid as a reservoir of infectious diseases, vectorborne and parasite disease. This book includes chapters on methodological issues, pathogenesis, and comprehensive reviews of virtually all known infectious diseases. New to the Third Edition: HIV chapter completely updated including results of trials of Male Circumcision, HIV-vaccines, female condoms, Microbicides and new drugs. Influenza chapter updated with new material on H1/N1 and control/prevention of Influenza during a pandemic. Malaria chapter updated with new information on bed nets, prophylactic therapy of pregnant women and other high risk populations as well as new detailed examination of the organization, implementation, and accomplishments of the WHO--Roll-Back Malaria program; and a new description of the 5th Human Malaria parasite--P.knowlesi and its Epidemiology. Hepatitis chapter is revised with new information on HEV virus. New brief chapter discussing the various models of behavioral change that are useful in Infectious Diseases research--e.g. Health Belief model etc. and much more!"

"Chikungunya disebabkan oleh virus chikungunya yang ditularkan oleh nyamuk Aedes Aegypti dan Aedes Albopictus. Kejadian luar biasa chikungunya baru per-tama terjadi di Dusun Mentubang Desa Harapan Mulia Kabupaten Kayong Utara. Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang berhubungan den-gan kasus chikungunya pada kejadian luar biasa di Dusun Mentubang. Metode yang digunakan yaitu rancangan kasus kontrol dengan jumlah kasus dan kontrol masing-masing sebanyak 65. Faktor yang diteliti yaitu umur, jenis kelamin, pen-didikan, pekerjaan, pengetahuan, kebiasaan melaksanakan PSN, kebiasaan meng-gunakan obat anti nyamuk, kebiasaan memakai kelambu, kebiasaan menggantung pakaian, keberadaan barang bekas penampung air hujan, keberadaan jentik nya-muk dalam kontainer dan penggunaan kasa pada ventilasi rumah. Sampelnya ada-lah penduduk yang menderita gejala utama demam, ada bercak kemerahan di permukaan kulit dan nyeri sendi. Sedangkan kontrolnya adalah penduduk yang tidak mengalami gejala chikungunya. Pengumpulan data melalui wawancara dan pengamatan. Hasil penelitian diperoleh dua faktor berhubungan dengan kejadian chikungunya yaitu kebiasaan menggunakan kelambu dengan OR=4,171 (95%CI=1,5-11,2) dan kebiasaan menggantung pakaian dalam kamar dengan OR=2,977 (95%CI=1,2-6,8). Faktor dominan pada kejadian chikungunya adalah kebiasaan menggunakan kelambu. Disarankan kepada penduduk dusun Mentu-bang membiasakan menggunakan kelambu saat tidur siang atau tidur malam agar terhindar dari gigitan nyamuk Aedes Aegypti dan Aedes Albopictus. ......Chikungunya is caused by the chikungunya virus is transmitted by the mosquito Aedes Aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Chikungunya outbreak first occurred in Hamlet Mentubang Harapan Mulia village North Kayong District. The study was conducted to determine the factors associated with chikungunya cases in outbreaks in hamlet Mentubang. The method used the case control design with a number of cases and controls each of 65. Factors studied were age, sex, educa-tion, occupation, knowledge, habits implement PSN, the habit of using anti-mosquito,mosquito net use habits, the habit of hangingclothes, the presence of rainwater used goods, the presence of mosquito larvae in containers and the use of gauze on ventilation home. Sample is the main symptom of people suffering from fever, there are patches of redness on the surface of the skinand joint pain. While the controls are residents whodo not experience symptoms of chikungunya. Data collection through interviews and observations. The results obtained by two factors related to occurrence of chikungunya is the habit of using bed nets (OR = 4.171 95% CI = 1.5to11.2) and the habit of hanging clothes in the room (OR =2.977 95% CI = 1.2 to 6.8). Dominant factor in the incidence of chikungunya is the habit of using mosquito nets. It is to familiarize Mentubang villagers use mosquito nets when sleeping day or night to avoid mosquito bites of Aedes aegypti and Aedes Albopictus."

"Pada Oktober 2006, di Kota Depok terjadi Kejadian Luar Biasa (KLB) chikungunya yang menyerang 200 warga di Kelurahan Cinere, Kecamatan Limo, Kota Depok. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor sosiodemografi dan lingkungan serta faktor dominan yang mempengaruhi KLB chikungunya di Kelurahan Cinere Kecamatan Limo Kota Depok. Desain studi yang digunakan adalah kasus kontrol dengan jumlah kasus dan kontrol masing-masing sebanyak 118 kasus. Faktor yang diteliti adalah pendidikan, pengetahuan, kepadatan hunian, umur, pekerjaan, jenis kelamin, mobilitas, perilaku penggunaan obat anti nyamuk, keberadaan jentik nyamuk, ketersediaan Tempat Penampungan Air, dan ketersediaan kasa nyamuk. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan empat variabel berhubungan dengan KLB chikungunya, yaitu pendidikan (OR=1,9: 1,12-3,23), umur (OR= 2,1: 1,22-3,46), dan kepadatan hunian (OR=2,2: 1,25-3,80). Dari hasil analisis multivariat didapatkan faktor yang paling dominan adalah kepadatan hunian dan diikuti oleh pendidikan. Probabilitas KLB chikungunya sebesar 2,1 kali pada subyek yang huniannya tidak padat dan berpendidikan rendah.On october 2005, in Depok occured chikungunya outbreaks that attack 200 citizen at Cinere, Limo Sub District, Depok City. This study purpose is to know the impact of sosidemographic and enviromental factor on chikungunya outbreaks at Cinere, Limo Sub District, Depok City. Research design is case control study. The number of case group and control group is 118 patient. Factor studied are education, knowlwdge, house density, age, occupation, sex, mobility, anti-mosquito chemical, existance of mosquito-larva, container, and wire netting. The result of the study suggest that there are three variabels that involved in chikungunya outbreaks, namely education (OR=1,9: 1,12-3,23), age (OR= 2,1: 1,22-3,46), and house density (OR=2,2: 1,25-3,80). Multivariat analysis showed that the most dominant factors are house density, and followed by education. Probability of chikungunya outbreaks is 2,1 for low house density and low educatio"

"Tulisan ini menjabarkan fenomena variasi respons individu petani terhadap realisasi kebijakan pemerintah yangdilaksanakan secara “top-down” pada masa otonomi daerah sekarang ini. Studi ini bertujuan untuk memahami prosesperubahan sosial serta masalah teoretis lainnya dengan memperhatikan faktor-faktor konstekstual dari munculnyavariasi tersebut. Individu adalah agen aktif dalam proses interpretasi fenomena dan pengambilan keputusan. Denganmenggunakan pendekatan etnografi dan kontekstualisasi progresif, penulis dapat menjabarkan variasi respons petaniDesa Kahuman, Kecamatan Polanharjo, Kabupaten Klaten, saat Program Inpari 13 berlangsung. Selama satu musimtanam Inpari 13 di tahun 2011, petani Kahuman memberikan respons berbeda, mulai dari proses penerimaan program,realisasi tanam sampai pengendalian hama melalui penyemprotan. Munculnya variasi respons ini menunjukkan bahwaindividu petanilah yang tetap menentukan segala keputusan dalam setiap praktik pengelolaan pertanian yang merekalakukan.This manuscript describes the phenomenon of variation in farmers’ individual responses to the realization of “topdown”government policy implemented during regional autonomy. The study aims to understand the process of socialchange as well as other theoretical problems with attention to contextual factors of the emergence of such variations.Individuals are active agents in interpreting phenomena and make decisions. Using an ethnographic approach andprogressive contextualization, I am able to describe the variation in responses of Kahuman village farmers, PolanharjoSubdistrict, Klaten Regency, when Inpari 13 Programme was carried out. During the growing season of Inpari 13 in2011, Kahuman’s farmers responded differently to program admission process, realization of planting, and pest controlthrough spraying. The emergence of the varied responses indicates that individual farmers still determine all decisionswithin each farm management practices that they do."

"Penyakit campak sangat menular terutama menyerang anak-anak yang tidak mempunyai kekebalan terhadap penyakit campak. Penyakit campak merupakan masalah kesehatan yang cukup serius baik di negara maju maupun negara berkembang, walaupun dapat dicegah dengan imunisasi namun KLB masih sering terjadi. Di Indonesia imunisasi campak dimulai tahun 1983 dan cakupan campak 80 % telah dicapai pada tahun 1990 dan dapat dipertahankan sampai sekarang. Namun cakupan tinggi belum terdistribusi merata sampai ke desa, sehingga masih terjadi KLB (Kejadian Luar Biasa) campak yang sering mengakibatkan kematian khususnya pada anak dengan gizi buruk. Cakupan tinggi menyebabkan terjadinya pergeseran umur penderita campak, bukan hanya pada balita tetapi mulai tinggi pada anak sekolah. Perubahan pola epidemi campak merubah strategi program. Serta mengacu kepada sidang WHA untuk menurunkan angka insidens campak sebesar 90% dan angka kematian campak sebesar 95%, dan sidang WHO 1996 yang menyatakan kemungkinan penyakit campak dapat dieradikasi karena pejamu hanya manusia. WHO membuat target global eradikasi campak pada tahun 2005 - 2010 dan menilai kinerja setiap negara terhadap upaya pengendalian campak. Berdasarkan kriteria WHO, maka Indonesia saat ini masuk dalam phase reduksi kasus dan pencegahan KLB campak. Namun strategi pencapaian diserahkan pada kemampuan keuangan masing-masing negara. Untuk mengantisipasi hal tersebut selain irunisasi rutin bayi, pada tahun 2000 telah diberikan imunisasi campak tambahan pada anak sekolah kelas 1 - 6 SD (catch up) di 2 propinsi (DKI Jakarta & Jawa Barat), serta crash program campak anak balita di desa rawan campak (resiko tinggi) di 13 propinsi di Indonesia. Sebelum mengadop kegiatan catch up ke propinsi lain serta mengingat keterbatasan keuangan negara, maka diperlukan evaluasi ekonomi analisis biaya hasil (cost effectiveness analysis) dari kegiatan campak tambahan tersebut. Sesuai dengan tujuan penelitian yaitu untuk mendapatkan gambaran tentang model kegiatan imunisasi campak yang paling "cost effective" dalam upaya pengendalian campak, mengetahui biaya satuan per kegiatan serta komponen biaya terbesar, juga untuk mengetahui kecenderungan penurunan kasus setelah imunisasi campak tambahan dilaksanakan.Penelitian dilakukan di Kabupaten Bogor di 56 puskesmas yang terdiri dari 28 Puskesmas Desa UCI yang melaksanakan imunisasi rutin dan catch up (model-2) dan 28 Puskesmas Desa Non-UCI yang melaksanakan imunisasi rutin, catch up dan crash program (model-3) pada tahun 2000 dan sebagai pembanding adalah puskesmas yang soma (tahun 1999) yang hanya melaksanakan imunisasi rutin (model-1). Rancangan penelitian studi operasional (OR) evaluasi ekonomi analisis biaya efektif (CEA). Berdasarkan jenis data retrospektif dengan analisa deskriptif. Hasilnya adalah biaya satuan: rutin Rp.8.141, catch up Rp.3.275, crash program Rp. 3.552. Biaya satuan yang paling cost effective adalah pada kegiatan masal catch up yaitu 40% dari biaya satuan rutin. Komponen biaya yang terbesar dari 3 kegiatan dan model imunisasi adalah pada biaya operasional (96,50% - 99,96%). Sedang jenis biaya terbesar pada biaya operasional imunisasi rutin adalah biaya vaksin, gaji, alat suntik dan transport lapangan. Hanya pada daerah sulit, transport lapangan lebih tinggi dart biaya alat suntik. Untuk kegiatan catch up dan crash program biaya operasional terbesar adalah biaya vaksin, alat suntik dan gaji. Terjadi penurunan kasus campak yang bermakna pada puskesmas yang sama, dengan membandingkan kegiatan imunisasi model-2 dan model-3 (tahun 2000) terhadap model-1 (1999). Penurunan kasus di puskesmas model-2 sebesar 49,5% dan di puskesmas model-3 sebesar 59,4%, sedangkan di Kabupaten Bogor penurunan kasus campak sebesar 65,3%. Pada tahun 2000 dikedua kelompok model penelitian dan di Kabupaten Bogor tidak terjadi KLB campak, dimana selama 9 tahun (1991-1999) selalu terjadi KLB campak.Proporsi penurunan kasus terbesar terjadi pada kelompok umur balita yaitu di puskesmas model-2: umur < 1 tahun (66,2%), dan umur l - 4 tahun (68,3%). Di puskesmasmodel-3: umurcl tahun (50%) dan 1 - 4 tahun (75,1%). Soma dengan di,Kabupaten Bogor penurunan kasus campak terbesar pada kelompok umur balita yaitu < 1 tahun (72,5%) dan umur 1 - 4 tahun (76,2%). Berdasarkan hasil CE-ratio dart kedua model imunisasi campak tambahan, model yang paling cost effective adalah model-2 yaitu imunisasi rutin bayi dan catch up anak SD. Model-2 ini efektif untuk menurunkan kasus dan mencegah terjadinya KLB berarti dapat memutuskan transmisi virus dari anak sekolah kepada anak balita dirumah, namun demikian untuk menghilangkan desa rawan campak kegiatan crash program harus tetap dilakukan di desa-desa dengan cakupan rendah 2-3 tahun.

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Measles is a serious infectious disease afflicted predominantly children under five who are susceptible to the disease. In most developing countries, measles is still one of the leading causes of children morbidity and mortality. Instead of significant achievement of EPI Program, outbreaks of measles are still frequently occurred. Measles vaccine was introduced and included into routine EPI in 1983 and UCI coverage (> 80 %) was achieved in 1990, and has been sustained until now. The problem that we are facing is the UCI coverage is not equally distributed which leads to the occurrence of measles outbreaks in pocket villages. The outbreaks claim many deaths among malnourished children. High coverage of measles vaccination has shifted the age of the cases to the right, where older children are affected and not only children under five. The changes of this disease pattern calls for revision of the EPI program strategy. The changes of the strategy is also revered to WHA resolution which has set the target of measles disease reduction by 90% and mortality reduction by 95%. Due to the natural history of disease, with potent vaccine measles could be eradicated like smallpox and polio. WHO has set the global target for measles eradication in 2005 - 2010 and plays a great roles in evaluating the performance of it's member countries towards measles eradication. WHO has conducted external evaluation and considered Indonesia is now at the stage of measles reduction and prevention of measles outbreaks occurrence. WHO member countries implemented different strategies in achieving their measles reduction target, it is very much depend on the available resources of each country. Indonesia, beside routine basic immunization program to infant has also in the year 2000 introduced additional measles vaccination to school children year 1 -- 6 elementary school in DKI Jakarta and West Java which is known as catch-up activities. Crash program for children under five was also introduced in measles high risk areas in 13 provinces. The introduction of catch-up campaign and crash program was based on epidemiological evidence. Cost effectiveness analysis need to be undertaken before deciding to adopt catch-up campaign and crash program approaches as national policy. The objectives of the cost effectiveness analysis study are to get better picture and better understanding of the most cost effective model of measles vaccination, unit cost for each activity, the biggest budget component, trend of measles reduction after additional measles vaccination been implemented.

The study was conducted in Bogor Regency involved 56 health centres, consists of 28 health centres have achieved village UCI coverage in 2000, which are implementing routine immunization and catch-up campaign (model-2) and 28 health centres who have not achieved village UCI coverage in 2000 which are implementing routine immunization, catch-up as well as crash program (model-3) control health centres were the same health centres who in 1999 implemented routine immunization (model-1) only. The study design was operational research (OR), economic evaluation cost effectiveness analysis (CEA). Using retrospective data with descriptive analysis. From data analysis it is evidence that the unit cost for different approaches are the following:

- Routine immunization Rp. 8141

- Catch-up campaign Rp. 3275

- Crash program Rp. 3552

The most cost effective is catch-up campaign which is only 40% of the cost of routine immunization. The biggest component of those three different approaches comes from the operational cost which is 96,5% - 99,96% of the total cost. In routine, the biggest cost of the operational cost is for vaccine, salaries, syringes and transportation. Only in remote different areas cost for transportation is bigger than cost for syringes. In catch-up campaign and crash program the biggest operational cost are for vaccines, syringes, salaries. It is evidence that there has been significance reduction of measles cases in model-2 and model-3 approaches (2000) as compare to model-1 (1999). Measles reduction in health centres for model-2 approach 49,5%, model-3 approach 59,4%, while for the whole Bogor Regency the measles reduction was 65,3%. It is also found that in 2000, measles outbreaks was not occurred in the study areas and in the Bogor Regency where in the last 9 years (1991-1999) measles outbreaks has always been occurred.

If we look at the age distribution the significant reduction was found in underfive group. Health centres model-2: < 1 year (66,2%), 1 - 4 years (68,3%). In health centres model-3: < 1 year (50%), I - 4 years (75,1%). Similar figure is also found in Bogor Regency where significant measles reduction was in underfive age group; < 1 year (72,5%), 1 - 4 years (76,2%). Finally, based on CE-Ratio calculation, model-2 was the most cost effective which include routine immunization and catch-up campaign for elementary school children. In conclusion model-2 is effective to reduce cases and to prevent measles outbreaks and is capable to cut the viral transmission from school children to children under five in their respective households. Hence, to reduce the number of high risk villages, crash program should be implemented continuously in low coverage villages at least for"

"Campak merupakan penyakit yang sangat menular dan sebagai penyebab utama kematian anak di negara berkembang termasuk di Indonesia. Kabupaten Karawang merupakan salah satu Kabupaten di Jawa Barat mempunyai cakupan imunisasi campak yang cukup tinggi dari tahun 2009-2013. Namun demikian masih terjadi KLB penyakit campak yang terjadi pada periode Desember 2013 sampai dengan Februari 2014 di Desa Segarjaya Kecamatan Batujaya. Desain penelitian ini adalah desain kasus kontrol. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui gambaran faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kejadian campak pada Kejadian Luar Biasa (KLB) campak di Desa Segarjaya Wilayah Puskesmas Batujaya Kabupaten Karawang Tahun 2014. Kasus adalah anak usia 0-14 tahun yang didiagnosa menderita campak berdasarkan gejala klinis dan tercatat dalam laporan C1 Dinas Kesehatan dan didiagnosa campak pada saat investigasi KLB, kontrol adalah anak yang tidak menderita gejala klinis campak, tetangga kasus yang rumahnya berdekatan dengan perbandingan jumlah kasus dan kontrol 1:2. Sebanyak 57 kasus dan 117 kontrol yang memenuhi kriteria inklusi. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa faktor utama yang berpengaruh terhadap kejadian campak pada KLB campak adalah jenis kelamin lak-laki OR=1,9 (CI 95%: 1,00-3,6), status anak yang tidak imunisasi memiliki OR= 2,5 (CI 95%: 1,20-5,2), anak yang mempunyai riwayat kontak OR=15,4 (CI 95%: 6,9-33,9). Sedangkan faktor yang bersifat protektif adalah faktor ibu yang tidak bekerja OR=0,4 (CI95%: 0,20-0,91). Dari hasil penelitian disarankan agar meningkatkan peran serta masyarakat dalam program imunisasi dan melaporkan segera jika ada kasus dengan gejala campak pada tenaga kesehatan, penguatan program imunisasi dan penguatan surveilans epidemiologi campak. ......Measles is a highly contagious disease and a major cause of child mortality in developing countries, including in Indonesia. Karawang regency is one of regencies in West Java has the measles immunization coverage is high enough from the years 2009 to 2013. However, there are measles outbreaks occurred in the period December 2013 to February 2014 in the Segarjaya Village District of Batujaya. This study design is case-control design. The purpose of this study to describe the factors that influence the incidence of measles in Extraordinary Events (KLB) in the Segarjaya Village of measles Regional Health Center Batujaya Karawang of district in 2014. Cases were children aged 0-14 years who were diagnosed with measles based on clinical symptoms and recorded the Department of Health and C1 reports diagnosed measles outbreaks during the investigation, control is a child who does not suffer from clinical symptoms of measles, a neighbor whose house is adjacent to the case of a comparison of cases and controls 1:2. A total of 57 cases and 117 controls who met the inclusion criteria. The results showed that the main factors that influence the incidence of measles in measles outbreaks are lacquer-male gender OR=1.9 (CI 95%: 1,00-3,6)), the immunization status of children who do not have OR=2.5 (CI 95%: 1,20-5,2), children who have a history of contact OR = 15.4 (CI 95%: 6,9-33,9). While the protective factor is a factor that is not working mothers OR=0.4 (CI95%: 0,20-0,91). From the results of the study suggested that increase community participation in immunization programs and report immediately if there is a case with symptoms of measles on health workers, strengthening immunization programs and the strengthening of epidemiological surveillance of measles."