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Abstrak :
[ABSTRAK
Di banyak negara berkembang termasuk Indonesia, pemerintah daerah masih berusaha keras untuk menyediakan jasa pengangkutan sampah yang memadai. Sampah yang tidak terangkut dibuang ke tempat pembuangan yang terbuka yang dapat meningkatkan resiko kesehatan. Di lain pihak, terdapat beberapa fenomena yang menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat secara bersama-sama dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan kolektif. Untuk memahami bagaimana solusi dari masyarakat dapat muncul, konsep modal sosial menjadi penting untuk dibahas. Modal sosial adalah jaringan sosial yang kuat yang didalamnya terdapat nilai dan norma yang dapat mendorong kerjasama antar individu. Interaksi sosial yang terjadi dilandasi oleh rasa percaya antar anggota masyarakat, yaitu bagaimana seorang individu percaya akan konstribusi dari anggota masyarakat yang lain untuk bersama-sama mengatasi permasalahan kolektif di komunitasnya. Masih kurangnya studi empirik mengenai modal sosial di Indonesia dan perlunya memberikan bukti apakah modal sosial mempengaruhi aksi kolektif menjadi tujuan utama disertasi ini. Karena pengukuran variabel modal sosial dan aksi kolektif merupakan salah satu masalah yang perlu diperhatikan, karenanya disertasi ini menggunakan dua metode yaitu model ekonometrik yang menggunakan data survey IFLS (Indonesia Family Life Survey) dan metode eksperimen (eksperimen di laboratorium komputer).

Seiring dengan dilakukannya eksperimen, dilakukan juga survey terhadap partisipan eksperimen untuk melihat konsistensi pengukuran modal sosial antara hasil eksperimen dengan survey. Aksi kolektif yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah yang terkait dengan kegiatan proteksi lingkungan. Pada model ekonometrik, trust (kepercayaan) dan civic network (jaringan sipil) digunakan sebagai proksi untuk mengukur modal sosial. Modal sosial diukur dalam dua tingkat, yaitu dalam tingkat individu dan tingkat kolektif (masyarakat). Metode eksperimen menggunakan trust game untuk mengukur trust, sebagai proksi dari modal sosial, dan public goods game untuk mengukur kontribusi individu untuk suatu aksi kolektif. Dari kedua metode empiris dapat diambil kesimpulan secara meyakinkan bahwa modal sosial secara signifikan berpengaruh pada kontribusi individu untuk suatu aksi kolektif. Dari metode yang pertama ditunjukkan bahwa pada tingkat individu, civic network mempunyai dampak yang lebih besar, sedangkan pada tingkat xii komunitas, trust memiliki dampak yang lebih besar terhadap peluang seseorang berpartisipasi dalam suatu aksi kolektif ?kerja bakti?. Faktor lain yang berpengaruh juga adalah pendapatan, jenis kelamin, tipe daerah (perkotaan/pedesaan), dan keragaman agama dan etnis dalam suatu wilayah. Hasil dari eksperimen menunjukkan bahwa trust berpengaruh positif terhadap kontribusi individu dalam suatu aksi kolektif. Hal ini berlaku baik untuk trustor (orang yang memberikan kepercayaan kepada orang lain) dan trustee (orang yang mengembalikan kepercayaan yang telah diberikan). Trust diukur dari berapa uang yang seorang individu berikan kepada pasangannya. Walaupun begitu, kita tidak menemukan bukti yang signifikan untuk menunjukkan bahwa pengungkapan dari perilaku sebagian anggota kelompok pada trust game berpengaruh pada kontribusi individu di public goods game. Terdapat beberapa implikasi dari hasil studi ini. Pertama adalah pentingnya memandang modal sosial sebagai faktor yang penting dalam penyediaan barang kolektif. Kedua, pentingnya mempertahankan tingkat modal sosial. Lebih jauh lagi, perlu difikirkan bagaimana mengakumulasi modal sosial dengan melakukan investasi. Ketiga, dalam setiap kebijakan pemerintah, tingkat modal sosial dalam masyarakat perlu dijadikan pertimbangan; artinya jangan sampai ada kebijakan yang akhirnya menurunkan modal sosial. Intervensi pemerintah yang terlalu besar ke dalam masyarakat dapat melemahkan kemampuan masyarakat untuk mengatasi permasalahan kolektif dan membuat masyarakat semakin tergantung kepada pemerintah.;

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ABSTRACT
struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual?s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment).

As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member?s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community?s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government.;struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual?s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment). As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member?s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community?s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government., struggle to provide with reliable solid waste collection services. Uncollected waste, dumped into open spaces, increases environmental health and risk. There exists evidence showing the ability of communities to collectively act at neighborhood levels in order to resolve a collective problem. In order to understand what takes place for a self-governed solution to emerge from within a community, the concept of social capital needs to be addressed. Social capital refers to a dense social network with embedded values and norms that promotes cooperation between individuals. This is the kind of social interaction that is represented by trust among members of a community. Trust here refers to an individual’s belief in the ability of others to contribute or cooperate to solve collective problems within a community. The lack of empirical study on social capital in Indonesia and providing strong empirical evidence on whether social capital induces collective action become the main objective of this dissertation. As the measurement issue of social capital and collective action becomes important factors to be considered, empirical evidence provided in this study will address the measurement problem. Two methods will be conducted: econometric model using large-scale survey based-data (IFLS/Indonesian Family Life Survey) and experimental method (computer laboratory experiment). As we conduct the experiment, we also conduct microscale survey within subjects to look at the consistency of the measurement of social capital between using experiment and survey. We use environmental protection activity as the case of collective action problem raised in this study. In the econometric model, trust and civic network are used to proxy social capital, and we introduce arisan as the control variable for social capital. We employ social capital in the individual and community context. The experimental method uses the trust game to measure trust, used here to proxy social capital, and a public goods game to measure contributions in a collective action. Results from the two methods seem to convincingly conclude that social capital significantly impacts individual contributions in a collective action. From the first method it is shown that at the individual level, civic network has the largest impact. At the community level, trust has the largest impact on the probability of individuals participating in kerja bakti. Other factors that need to put into account x are income, gender, region (urban/rural), and diversity in terms of religion and ethnicity. Results from the experiment method show that trust is positively significant in inducing individual contributions in a collective action, and this holds both for the trustor (the one who hands over the trust to the trustee) and the trustee (the one who reciprocates in kind). Trust is measured here by how much money is given by an individual to his or her partner. However, we found no significant evidence to support the impact of partial disclosure of a group member’s behavior in the trust game on contributions in the public goods game. There are implications to consider from the results of this study. First is the importance of considering social capital as a means to provide collective goods. Second, the importance to maintain the levels of social capital. We also have to think on how does one accumulate more out of investing in social capital. Third, with any (local) government policy, the existing social capital has to be taken into account; a policy should not be implemented if it reduces social capital. Too much government intervention into a community could weaken the community’s capacity to resolve a collective problem and make them more dependent on the government.]

Abstrak :
Studi ini bertujuan untuk melakukan evaluasi kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan. Penulis mengkaji dampak kebijakan-kebijakan ini terhadap kinerja perekonomian, kemiskinan, dan ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan dengan menggunakan pendekatan komputasi keseimbangan umum. Penulis menemukan bahwa kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor di sektor pertanian dan di sektor industri pertanian meningkatkan kinerja perekonomian. Sementara itu kebijakan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor di sektor industri non pertanian menurunkan PDB riil. Kebijakan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan meningkatkan kinerja perekonomian dengan besaran yang lebih besar. Insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan menurun namun di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional meningkat akibat kebijakan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian. Kebijakan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian menunjukkan penurunan insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan dan di tingkat nasional namun netral di perdesaan. Sementara itu penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian menunjukkan penurunan kemiskinan di perkotaan, di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional. Kebijakanan penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan gabungan penurunan tarif bea masuk impor dan biaya transaksi perdagangan menurunkan insiden kemiskinan di perkotaan, di perdesaan dan di tingkat nasional dengan keuntungan lebih besar pada rumah tangga di perdesaan. Ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan di perdesaan meningkat akibat penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian, penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan menurun akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan serta netral akibat gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan. Sementara itu ketimpangan distribusi pendapatan di perkotaan meningkat akibat penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan dan menurun akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian, gabungan penurunan tarif di sektor industri non pertanian dan biaya transaksi perdagangan serta netral akibat penurunan tarif di sektor industri pertanian, penurunan biaya transaksi perdagangan. ......This study aims to evaluate the policy to reduce import tariffs, reduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and reduced trade transaction costs. Author examines the impact of these policies on the performance of the economy, poverty, and inequality of income distribution using computational general equilibrium approach. The authors found that the policy of reduction in import tariffs in the agricultural sector and in the agricultural industry sector improve economic performance. While the policy to reduction in import tariffs on non-agricultural sector lowers real GDP. Policy to reduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and trade transaction costs increase the performance of the economy. The incidence of poverty in urban and rural decline but at a national level rise due to tariffs reduction policies in the agricultural sector. Tariffs reduction policies in the agricultural sector showed a decrease in the incidence of poverty in urban areas and at the national level but is neutral in the rural areas. While the policy to reduction in import tariffs on non agricultural sector showed a decline in urban poverty, in rural areas and at the national level. Policy to eduction in trade transaction costs and the combined reduction in import tariffs and trade transaction costs reduce the incidence of poverty in urban areas, in rural areas and at the national level with a greater advantage in rural households. Inequality of income distribution in rural areas increased due to tariffs reduction in agriculture sector, tariffs reduction in agriculture industrial sector and decreased due to tariffs reduction policies in the non agricultural sector, reduction in trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture industry sector and trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the non-agricultural industry sector and trade transaction costs as well as neutral due to the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector and trade transaction costs. While the inequality of income distribution in urban areas increased due to tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture sector and trade transaction costs, the combined tariffs reduction in the agriculture industry sector and trade transaction costs and decrease due to reduction in import tariffs of non agricultural sector, the combined tariffs reduction in the non-agricultural industry sector and trade transaction costs as well as neutral due to tariffs reduction in the agricultural sector, reduction in trade transaction costs.

Abstrak :
ABSTRAK Disertasi ini meneliti dampak sistem cukai ad valorem, spesifik dan hybrid terhadap harga dan konsumsi rokok. Hipotesis utama H0 pada disertasi ini adalah sistem cukai berdampak pada harga rokok, di mana dampak sistem cukai spesifik terhadap harga lebih besar dibanding ad valorem atau hybrid. Perubahan terhadap harga selanjutnya berdampak pada perubahan konsumsi rokok. Sedangkan pertanyaan penelitian ini adalah seberapa besar beban cukai digeser ke harga pada masing-masing sistem cukai dan sistem cukai mana yang berdampak besar pada konsumsi rokok. Data panel dari 114 negara pada tahun 2008 dan 2010 digunakan sebagai analisis antar negara. Sedangkan data panel konsumsi per pabrikan dari 3.294 pabrik dalam periode bulanan dari tahun 2005-2010 dipakai untuk mengestimasi permintaan masing-masing merk rokok di Indonesia, fokus pada periode ini karena Indonesia pernah menerapkan ketiga sistem cukai tersebut secara beruntun. Pada analisis cross country maupun data cukai per perusahaan di Indonesia, diawali dengan dengan model incidence tax konvensional yakni memasukan variabel beban cukai ke dalam persamaan harga dengan tidak memasukan faktor sistem cukai. Pada model II analisis incidence tax dilakukan dengan memasukan beban cukai pada masing-masing sistem cukai. Hasil estimasi secara keseluruhan menunjukan fenomena incidence tax yang over shifting dimana sistem cukai spesifik menaikan harga lebih besar dibandingkan dengan sistem cukai lainnya. Analisis selanjutnya adalah mengestimasi transmisi sistem cukai ke konsumsi melalui harga, analisis dampak sistem cukai ini menggunakan metode 2SLS dan 3SLS. Persamaan konsumsi rokok dimana variabel harga rokok merupakan variabel endogen yang dipengaruhi oleh masing-masing sistem cukai. Untuk analisis permintaan rokok di Indonesia lebih lanjut yakni memasukan faktor adiksi dengan memperhitungkan lag konsumsi periode sebelumnya ke dalam model. Hasil estimasi terhadap model permintaan konsumsi rokok antar negara menunjukan bahwa sistem spesifik berdampak positif paling besar terhadap harga dibandingkan sistem ad valorem ataupun hybrid. Demikian pula hasil estimasi pada permintaan konsumsi rokok di Indonesia menunjukan hasil yang sama. Sehingga hipotesis bahwa sistem spesifik paling besar dampaknya dalam menaikan harga rokok serta sistem spesifik paling besar dampaknya dalam menurunkan konsumsi rokok terbukti didukung baik oleh data cross country maupun data Indonesia.

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ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the impact of ad valorem, hybrid and specific excise system to cigarette price and consumption. The main hypothesis i.e. there is an impact of excise system to the price of tobacco, in which specific system has greater impact than ad valorem or hybrid system. Price change has an impact to cigarette consumption. The research question is to answer what fraction of excise is passed on to consumers in each excise systems and which one of excise system has the greatest negative impact on consumption, which is important to know, when country makes choice on appropriate excise system policy in order to reform their excise system for tobacco control. Panel data from 114 countries on the year 2008 and 2010 is explored for cross countries demand. Whereas brands consumption panel data of 3.294 firms of monthly periods from 2005-2010 is explored for demand estimation in Indonesia. In this period Indonesia has implemented ad valorem, hybrid and specific excise system consecutively. With cross countries data and brands consumption data in Indonesia, in the first model conventional analysis, this study explores the impact of increasing excise on price without including excise system. In the Model II, this study analyzes model by including burden of excise in each excise syste. The sstimation results shows that incidence tax is over shifting which specific excise system increase price more than other excise systems. Furthermore, this study estimates excise system transmission to the consumption through the price, by using 2SLS and 3SLS. In the model of cigarette consumption, the price of cigarette is an endogenous variable which is affected by each of the excise systems. This study considers addiction factor by including lag period of consumption into the model. In the cross country analysis, the result of cigarette consumption demand model indicates that specific excise system has greatest negative impact in reducing consumption than any other excise system. Similarly, in the case of Indonesia shows the same results. Therefore the hypothesis that the specific system has the highest impact in raising the price of cigarettes as well as reducing cigarette consumption supported by the Indonesia and the cross country data.

Abstrak :
Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis pola perdagangan dan diversifkasi ekspor serta pengaruhnya terhadap pertumbuhan dan volatilitas output sektor industri manufaktur di Indonesia periode 2000-2010 menggunakan estimasi Sistem Generalized Methode of Moment (GMM). Diversifikasi ekspor dalam penelitian ini mencakup diversifikasi produk (horizontal dan vertikal) dan pasar ekspor. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan: Pertama, terjadi pergeseran tujuan ekspor produk manufaktur di mana tujuh dari sepuluh negara tujuan ekspor utama, telah mengadakan perjanjian dagang dengan Indonesia. Kedua, terjadi penurunan tingkat diversifikasi pasar dan produk horizontal ekspor, sedangkan diversifikasi produk vertikal ekspor mengalami peningkatan. Ketiga, peningkatan diversifikasi pasar dan produk horizontal ekspor berkorelasi negatif dengan pertumbuhan sedangkan diversifikasi produk ekspor vertikal berkorelasi positif terhadap pertumbuhan output. Keempat, diversifikasi pasar ekspor dapat menurunkan volatilitas output. Kelima, diversifikasi produk horizontal ekspor berkorelasi positif dengan volatilitas output. Hal ini terjadi seiring meningkatnya peranan penerimaan ekspor bagi industri sehingga menurunnya permintaan ekspor akan mengurangi volume ekspor, mengurangi keuntungan produsen, menurunkan harga dan memperburuk Term of Trade (ToT) sehingga volatilitas output meningkat. Terakhir, diversifikasi produk vertikal ekspor tidak berpengaruh terhadap volatilitas output karena lemahnya struktur industri dan integrasi vertikal dalam sektor industri manufaktur Indonesia.

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The objective of this research is to analysis the trade and export diversification pattern and its impact on output growth and volatility of manufacturing industry sector in Indonesia on period of 2000-2010 use System Generalized Method of Moment (GMM) estimation. Export diversification consists of export product (horizontal and vertical) and market diversification. The result shows that: First, there were markets shifting of manufacture product which is dominated by seven countries which had having trade agreement with Indonesia. Second, market and product horizontal export diversification were decreasing but product vertical export diversification was increase. Third, export market and horizontal product diversification negatively correlated with output growth whereas vertical product diversification positively correlated. Fourth, export market diversification has negative impact on output volatility. Fifth, diversification of product horizontal export positively correlated with output volatility. Finally, export vertical product diversification has no impact on output volatility because of weakness of vertical integration and manufacturing industry structure.