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Orangutan is the Asian representative of the great apes. Its present range is confined to dwindling areas on the islands of Sumatera (Pongo abelii) and Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus) (Rijksen & Meijaard, 1999). Orangutans are arboreal (Rijksen, 1978; Galdikas, 1978), frugivorous (MacKinnon, 1974) and live semi-solitary in fission- fusion societies (Delgado & van Schaik, 2000). Ketambe, one of the major orangutan sites, supports a population density of 3-5 ind/km2 . Ketambe Research Center, which is based in Gunung Leuser Ecosystem, was run since early 1970. There are at least six families of orangutans living in the research areal of 450 ha, including the offspring of the ex rehabilitation orangutans. Orangutans in this area have been studied since 1971, where many behavioral and ecological studies have been conducted.. One of the most important studies identified matrilines within Ketambe based on genetic analysis (Atmoko, 2000) Female orangutans in Ketambe tend to be philopatric which means that they remain in their natal or birth groups. This condition is the result of intense competition among individual orangutans over food patchs because they often form dominance relations when meeting in the same food patch. Dominan ranking of ex-rehabilitation orangutans, based on a liniear index of responses in the context of displacement at a food patch, tends to be lower than those of wild orangutans. Orangutans travel and forage to find food patches within their habitat. By using software GIS Arc View 3.3, Day Journey Length (DHL) adult females including ex-rehabilitation female orangutan ex-rehabilitant is known to be 37-2.106 meters with an average between 437-795 meter. The matrilinial relationship between individuals influence each other in foraging and competition to form home ranges, especially for females. Orangutans matrilines tend to have overlapping home ranges between 46,66% - 97,07%)."

"Orangutans are arboreal, semi solitary, and frugivor primates. Theyspend the majority of their time consuming fruits. The percentage of fruitconsumption reaches 60–70 % of the total feeding time. The fluctuating fruitavailability in the nature significantly impacts the orangutan’s nutritionalintake. When fruits are available in low amounts, orangutans will use their fatstorage to produce energy. The final result of the fat metabolism is ketonebodies, which can be detected in the orangutan’s urine.Tuanan is a secondary forest that would be an interesting valuable sitefor comparative studies, to ensure whether a certain type of habitat impactsthe orangutan’s behavior and its necessity for food. The objectives of thisresearch were (1) to observe the orangutan’s daily activity, food proportion,as well as the presence of ketone bodies in the orangutan’s urine, and (2) toensure whether fruit availability affects those values.Data were collected from the following 12 orangutans (5 nonreproductivefemales, 1 reproductive female, 3 flanged males and 3unflanged males) using instantaneous focal animal sampling method. The proportion of time spent in feeding, resting, moving, nesting, and socialactivity were 61,20%, 27,08%, 10,30%, 1,24% and 0,18%, respectively.Significant difference was obtained only in moving activity. Social activity hassignificant correlation with fruit availability.From this research, food proportion consisted of fruits (50,94%),leaves (27,24%), vegetative (9,87%), flowers (5,42%), cambium (3,65%),insects (2,80%), and others (0,08%). There was different proportion in flowerintake based on gender and social class. Proportion of fruit consumption inorangutans was significantly correlated with fruit availability.From 116 orangutans' urine samples, ketone bodies were only found innon-reproductive females. The female had just given birth to her firstoffspring. There was no significant correlation between the presence ofketone bodies in orangutans with fruit availability."

"Salah satu kegiatan yang paling penting untuk kelangsungan hidup adalah makan. Produksi makanan orang utan dapat dipengaruhi oleh musim (curah hujan, temperatur, kelembaban). Dalam penelitian terlihat bahwa produksi daun muda di Stasiun Penelitian Ketambe dipengaruhi oleh kelembaban, sedangkan produksi buah dan bunga tidak dipengaruhi oleh musim. Untuk melihat perubahan perilaku makan yang dilakukan oleh orang utan jantan dewasa, jantan remaja, dan betina dewasa dapat digunakan metode Focal Animal sampling. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan orang utan lebih suka makan buah berdaging saat produksi buah berlimpah, tetapi saat produksi buah langka, maka orang utan akan mengonsumsi serangga, daun muda, vegetasi, daun tua, bunga dan kategori lain-lain. Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa betina dewasa relatif lebih banyak memakan serangga daripada jantan dikarenakan orang utan betina dewasa beradaptasi untuk memperoleh protein guna pertumbuhan dan perkembangan anak. Selain itu, dalam penelitian ditemukan pula ada perbedaan perilaku makan daun tua, bunga, serangga, vegetasi dan kategori lain-lain antara jantan dewasa, jantan remaja, dan betina dewasa.

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One of the most important activities for survival is feeding. Productivity of orang utan food was effect by weather (rain, temperature, humidity). The results of this investigation indicate that the young leaves season at Ketambe Research Station in Sumatra is influenced by humidity, while the fruiting season and flower season are not influenced by weather. To see feeding behavioral change at orang utan we use Focal Animal Sampling method. Orangutans prefer to eat fruits with soft pulp when fruit is abundant, but will fall-back on insect, young leaves, vegetation, mature leaves, flower and other food items when fruit is not available. We also examined patterns of feeding behaviour among adult males, sub-adult males, and adult females. We found that adult females spend a greater proportion of time feeding on insects relative to all males, perhaps as an adaptation to obtain enough protein for adequate growth and development of dependent offspring. In addition, we found additional differences among these age/sex classes in feeding behaviour on mature leaves, flowers, insect, vegetation and other food items."

"Orangutan Asia's great ape has relatively solitary style, which prevents a mother for associating with two offspring. Since lactation is the most obvious uniquely maternal service, weaning is often seen as the essential transition to the ability to survive. However, the mother serves multiple functions: in addition to nutrition, she provides transportation, shelter (against elements), and protection (against conspecifics and predators), and demonstrates numerous skills that the offspring can learn, including knowledge of food species (diet competence), foraging techniques (foraging competence), and efficient use of the range (ranging competence). The offspring eventually has to reach independence in all these aspects, but does not necessarily do so at the same time for all of them (van Noordwijk and van Schaik, 2005). This study of two wild adolescence female orangutans (Kondor, 9.5 years old and Milo, 7.5 years old) and their mother (Kerry with 31 year old second offspring and Mindy with 24 year old second offspring) was conducted at secondary forest the Tuanan Research Station, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. To describe their development of independence, data on their activity budget, nesting behavior, ranging strategies and social interaction (distance intensity with mother, feeding tolerance, and reproduction behavior) were collected during two periods (December 2006 to May 2007 and September 2008 to September 2009). The behavior of a study animal was recorded using the instantaneous focal-animal sampling technique and ad libitum for social interaction, while vertical methods for nesting behavior, and GIS Arc View 3.3 for Day Journey Length (DHL) also minimum convex polygon (MCP) for home range size. The proportion of time spent in moving and social are higher with adolescence females comparing their mother. The intensity of the distance affects the process of nest building. It showed by the differences in the duration of nest building and position of the nest. The day journey length and home ranges of adolescence females are longer and larger compared with their own mother. However, the overlapping still high (85-89%) and made them tend to spent feeding tolerance often and longer with their own mother than other orangutans. Larger home ranges lead the offspring having interaction with other orangutans, especially with males. Sexual interactions (attempt copulation, intromission and force copulation) between adolescence female orangutans more frequent happened with unflanged males compared with flanged males."

"Penelitian mengenai ekologi orang utan di hutan primer seluas 330 ha dan hutan bekas tebangan seluas 83 ha, Stasiun Penelitian Ketambe, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, telah dilakukan sejak Juli 2009-Juli 2010, dengan data tambahan pada 1993-1995 (sebelum penebangan) dan 2003-2008 (pasca penebangan) khusus untuk daerah jelajah orang utan. Perbandingan kedua tipe habitat di hutan primer dan hutan bekas tebangan dilakukan melalui analisis vegetasi, fruit trail, nest count, pemanfaatan fruit patch per km dan penggunaan daerah jelajah. Pengambilan data vegetasi dilakukan dengan metode kuadrat sebanyak 20 plot. Sedangkan untuk fruit trail dan nest count menggunakan metode transek (4 jalur transek sepanjang 9,1 km), dan untuk pemanfaatan fruit patch per km serta penggunaan daerah jelajah orang utan menggunakan metode focal animal instantaneous dan GPS. Analisis statistik nonparametrik Mann-Whitney digunakan untuk menguji perbedaan penggunaan kedua tipe habitat. Analisis korelasi Spearman digunakan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara kelimpahan pohon berbuah (fruit trails) dengan kepadatan sarang (nest counts), kelimpahan pohon berbuah (fruit trails) dengan jelajah orang utan, serta hubungan antara sumber pakan berbuah (fruit patches) dengan jelajah orang utan. Analisis GIS Arc View 3.2 dan Arc GIS 9.3 digunakan untuk melihat luas daerah jelajah orang utan. Hasil analisis vegetasi menunjukkan terdapat 275 pohon dari 99 jenis pohon di hutan primer dengan 67 jenis diantaranya merupakan pohon pakan berbuah. Sedangkan untuk hutan bekas tebangan terdapat 303 pohon dari 87 jenis pohon dengan 56 jenis diantaranya merupakan pohon pakan berbuah. Hutan primer tersusun atas vegetasi asli, sedangkan hutan bekas tebangan tersusun oleh vegetasi perintis. Indeks Keanekaragaman (H?) di hutan primer 3,074; di hutan bekas tebangan 2,961 dan Indeks Kesamaan (ISs) pohon 59,70%; liana 61%, sehingga menyimpulkan bahwa kedua habitat hampir sama dan proses pemulihan hutan dalam 8 tahun terlihat berjalan dengan baik walaupun belum mencapai suksesi akhir. Kelimpahan pohon berbuah tertinggi terjadi pada Juni ? Agustus pada setiap tahun. Kepadatan orang utan berkorelasi positif terhadap ketersediaan buah di hutan primer, tetapi pola yang sama tidak terlihat di hutan bekas tebangan. Jarak jelajah jantan (Asymp.Sig = 0,439) atau betina (Asymp.Sig = 0,121) sebelum penebangan (1993-1995) dan pascapenebangan I (2003-2008), ataupun pascapenebangan II (2009-2010) tidak ada perbedaan. Tidak ada hubungan yang signifikan (0,307 di hutan primer dan 0,119 di hutan bekas tebangan) antara kelimpahan pohon (semua jenis) berbuah di trails dengan jarak jelajah orang utan. Namun demikian, terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara sumber pakan orang utan berbuah (fruit patches) dengan jarak jelajah orang utan (0,022 di hutan primer dan 0,015 di hutan bekas tebangan). Tujuan orang utan menjelajah untuk mencari sumber pakan khususnya pakan berbuah (Asymp.Sig = 0,005). Berdasarkan hasil analisis diketahui pula, 79% orang utan menggunakan hutan primer dan 21% hutan bekas tebangan sebagai daerah jelajahnya.

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Research on ecology of orangutans in 330 ha area of which is pristine forest and 83 ha of which has been logged, Ketambe Research Station. The study was conducted in July 2009-July 2010, with additional ranging data from 1993 to 1995 and data from 2003 to 2008. Comparison of these two habitat types was done through analysis of vegetation, fruit trail, nest counts, use of food patches per km and use of ranging. Vegetation data collected from squares method (20 sampling plots), fruit trail and nest count 9.1 km transect lines. Ranging data were collected by focal animal instantaneous sampling and GPS. Arc GIS 3.2 and Arc View GIS 9.3 were used for the analysis of ranging area and tested with Mann-Whitney. The results of vegetation analysis revealed that in unlogged forest there were 275 trees comprising 99 species with 67 species being orangutan food trees, whereas in logged forest there were 303 trees with 87 species of which 56 species were orangutan food trees. Unlogged forests are typically composed of native vegetation whereas logged forests comprise pioneer species. Diversity Index (H?) in unlogged forest 3,074; in logged 2,961 and Similarity index (ISs) to trees 59,70%; liana 61%, revealed that both habitats are similar and natural succession during the past eight years has been progressing well although pioneer trees such as Elateriospermum tapos and Macaranga sp. were still present in the logged forest. Fruit trails studies revealed that levels of productivity of trees fruiting were highest between June-August in each year. Nest counts showed that the productivity of fruit trees was positively correlated to the density of orangutans. Orangutan density was positively correlated to fruit availability in unlogged forest, but the same pattern is seen in logged forest. A range pattern of male and female on before and after logging were not difference. They used primary forest wider than in logged area. There was no significant relationship (0.307 and 0.119 in the unlogged forest in logged forest) between the abundance of fruit trees (all) in trails with a orangutans range. However, there is a significant relationship between orangutan fruit patches with an orangutan?s range (0.022 in the unlogged forest and 0.015 in logged forest). Orangutans prefer to range use the primary forest (79%) as compared to logged forest (21%)."

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AbstractThe aim of this study was to determine individual orangutan home rangesand core areas and identify overlapping areas among individuals. The researchwas conducted over 34 months, at Cabang Panti Research Station, Gunung PalungNational Park, West Kalimantan. Observations were conducted by focal animalsampling, were taken 30 minutes points during focal follows. Data results showthat the average daily journey length of a female orangutan at Cabang Pantiwas762 meters and the average length of a male was 748 meters. Based onKernel analysis, it was determined that a female orangutan home range areaoccupies 33,6% of the research area on average, roughly quivalent to a male?shome range, which occupies 36,9% of the research area. Meanwhile, the averagefemale orangutan core area was 36 ha and average male core area was 43 ha.Among female orangutans, Beth was the adult female who had the largest overlaparea with the male ranges, wheareas Codet (a flanged male) and Zorro (anunflanged male) had the largest overlap areas with the female ranges."

"[ABSTRAKAktivitas makan merupakan aktivitas dominan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh orangutan untuk pemenuhan kebutuhan dalam upaya bertahan hidup. Penelitian bertujuan mengetahui proporsi waktu makan dan proporsi waktu mencoba makan pada anak orangutan. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah instantaneus focal animal sampling dan ad libitum sampling. Anak sangat antusias mempelajari kemampuan dan keterampilan untuk bertahan hidup melalui hubungan sosial dengan induknya. Sejak usia 1 tahun anak sudah mulai peering (7,67 %) hingga usia 8 tahun (65 %). Induk merupakan penyangga anak dengan lingkungannya dan panutan yang dicontoh dalam melakukan sesuatu, khususnya perilaku makan. Proporsi waktu makan anak mandiri semakin meningkat dari 0,24 % (1 tahun) hingga 55,1 % (8 tahun) akan meningkat ke arah proporsi makan induknya. Pemilihan jenis makanan dan teknik makan anak orangutan dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik jenis makanan dan teknik yang digunakan oleh induk. Teknik makan yang paling banyak digunakan yaitu teknik dengan menggunakan mulut dan teknik kombinasi yaitu gabungan antara tangan dengan kaki. Hal tersebut dikarenakan anak orangutan selalu bersama induknya dan anak memiliki keterbatasan dalam memperoleh dan mengolah jenis makanan yang sulit dikonsumsi. Toleransi induk juga berperan penting dalam proses kemandirian anaknya, melalui makan bersama pada satu pohon yang sama, transfer makanan dan memberikan makanan yang sulit didapat maupun sulit diproses ketika anak meminta darinya. Selain itu, anak orangutan juga berusaha untuk meningkatkan keterampilannya dengan mencoba mengolah (try feeding) dan terlihat ketika anak orangutan baru mulai mengonsumsi kulit kayu pada usia 4 - 5 tahun dengan tingkat kesulitan tinggi.

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ABSTRACTFeeding activity is the most dominant activity of orangutans to fulfil their needs in an effort to survive. The research aims to know the proportions of feeding time and try feeding in immature orangutans. Research method used was instantaneus focal animal sampling and ad libitum sampling. Immatures orangutan are very antusiastic about learning abilities and skills to survive through social interaction with mother. Since the age of 1 year old (7,67%) infant have started try feeding until the age of 8 years old (65%). Orangutan mother is child?s buffer with its environment ad role model, in particular the eating behavior. As dependent offsprings getting older, their feeding activity proportion increased to their mothers level from 0,24 % (1 year old) until 55,1% (8 years old). Dependent offspring rely on social interactions with their mother to acquire information about the food type, feeding behaviour, and feeding techniques. Dependent offspring always with their mother to obtain the food that is difficult to consume because mother always tolerance to help and give the food when the dependent offspring beg for food. Try feeding enhances the ability to consume bark since 4 -5 years old, bark is really difficult to get and to process., Feeding activity is the most dominant activity of orangutans to fulfil theirneeds in an effort to survive. The research aims to know the proportions offeeding time and try feeding in immature orangutans. Research method used wasinstantaneus focal animal sampling and ad libitum sampling. Immaturesorangutan are very antusiastic about learning abilities and skills to survive throughsocial interaction with mother. Since the age of 1 year old (7,67%) infant havestarted try feeding until the age of 8 years old (65%). Orangutan moter is child’sbuffer with its environment ad role model, in particular the eating behaviuor. Asdependent offsprings getting older, their feeding activity proportion increased totheir mothers level from 0,24 (1 year old) until 55,1% (8 years old). Dependentoffspring rely on social interactions with their mother to acquire informationabout the food type, feeding behaviour, and feeding techniques. Dependentoffspring always with their mother to obtain the food that is difficult to consumebecause mother always tolerance to help and give the food when the dependentoffspring beg for food. Try feeding enhances the ability to consume bark since 4 -5 years old, bark is really difficult to get and to process]"

"ABSTRAKStudi ini menyediakan analisis awal mengenai komunikasi vokal pada kelasi(Presbytis rubicunda). Bagian pertama dari studi ini mengidentifikasi danmendeskripsikan repertoar vokal yang dimiliki oleh kelasi beserta kontekspenggunaan dan struktur akustiknya. Bagian kedua menganalisis fungsi dari salahsatu jenis vokalisasi pada kelasi, yaitu loud call, dengan mengidentifikasi variasiakustik pada loud call antarkonteks dan antarindividu. Sebanyak 574 rekamanvokal dari 3 kelompok kelasi di Laboratorium Alam Hutan Gambut, Sabangau,Kalimantan Tengah digunakan dalam analisis. Analisis dilakukan secara akustikdan secara statistik menggunakan statistik deskriptif dan fungsi diskriminan.Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa repertoar vokal kelasi terdiri dari setidaknya10 jenis vokalisasi yang dapat dibedakan berdasarkan struktur akustiknya (p <0,05). Kelasi betina dewasa memiliki jenis vokalisasi terbanyak (5 jenis), diikutioleh bayi (4 jenis), dan jantan dewasa (2 jenis). Kelasi menggunakan repertoarvokal tersebut dalam berbagai macam konteks yang digunakan untukberkomunikasi ke luar kelompok (saat bertemu kelompok kelasi lain, melihatpredator atau manusia) atau dengan sesama anggota kelompok (berpindah, makan,dan interaksi antara ibu dan bayi). Hasil analisis fungsi diskriminan jugamenunjukkan bahwa loud call kelasi memiliki variasi akustik yang signifikan (p <0,05) antarindividu maupun antarkonteks yang memungkinkan pendengarnyauntuk mengetahui identitas kelasi pemanggil dan konteks dari panggilan tersebut

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ABSTRACTThis study provides a preliminary analysis on maroon langurs? (Presbytisrubicunda) vocal communication. The first section of this study identified maroonlangurs? vocal repertoire as well as its associated contexts and acoustic structure.This second section analyzed the function of maroon langurs? loud call byidentifying variations in its acoustic feature between contexts and individuals. Atotal of 574 recordings from 3 maroon langur groups in Sabangau NaturalLaboratory of Peat Swamp Forest, Central Kalimantan were used in this study.Analyses were performed acoustically and statistically using descriptive statisticsand discriminant function analysis. Our analyses showed that maroon langurs?vocal repertoire consisted of at least 10 types of vocalization that can bediscriminated by its acoustic structure (p < 0.05). Adult females had the largestrepertoire (5 types), followed by infants (4 types), and adult males (2 types).Maroon langurs used vocalizations in various contexts to facilitate extragroupcommunication (such as group encounter, presence of predator or human) orintragroup communication (traveling, feeding, and mother-infant interaction).Discriminant function analysis also showed that maroon langurs? loud callspossessed significant acoustic variation (p < 0.05) between individuals andcontexts, which may inform the receivers about the identity of the caller and thecontext of the call."

"ABSTRAKStudi ini menyediakan analisis awal mengenai komunikasi vokal pada kelasi(Presbytis rubicunda). Bagian pertama dari studi ini mengidentifikasi danmendeskripsikan repertoar vokal yang dimiliki oleh kelasi beserta kontekspenggunaan dan struktur akustiknya. Bagian kedua menganalisis fungsi dari salahsatu jenis vokalisasi pada kelasi, yaitu loud call, dengan mengidentifikasi variasiakustik pada loud call antarkonteks dan antarindividu. Sebanyak 574 rekamanvokal dari 3 kelompok kelasi di Laboratorium Alam Hutan Gambut, Sabangau,Kalimantan Tengah digunakan dalam analisis. Analisis dilakukan secara akustikdan secara statistik menggunakan statistik deskriptif dan fungsi diskriminan.Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa repertoar vokal kelasi terdiri dari setidaknya10 jenis vokalisasi yang dapat dibedakan berdasarkan struktur akustiknya (p <0,05). Kelasi betina dewasa memiliki jenis vokalisasi terbanyak (5 jenis), diikutioleh bayi (4 jenis), dan jantan dewasa (2 jenis). Kelasi menggunakan repertoarvokal tersebut dalam berbagai macam konteks yang digunakan untukberkomunikasi ke luar kelompok (saat bertemu kelompok kelasi lain, melihatpredator atau manusia) atau dengan sesama anggota kelompok (berpindah, makan,dan interaksi antara ibu dan bayi). Hasil analisis fungsi diskriminan jugamenunjukkan bahwa loud call kelasi memiliki variasi akustik yang signifikan (p <0,05) antarindividu maupun antarkonteks yang memungkinkan pendengarnyauntuk mengetahui identitas kelasi pemanggil dan konteks dari panggilan tersebut.

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ABSTRACTThis study provides a preliminary analysis on maroon langurs? (Presbytisrubicunda) vocal communication. The first section of this study identified maroonlangurs? vocal repertoire as well as its associated contexts and acoustic structure.This second section analyzed the function of maroon langurs? loud call byidentifying variations in its acoustic feature between contexts and individuals. Atotal of 574 recordings from 3 maroon langur groups in Sabangau NaturalLaboratory of Peat Swamp Forest, Central Kalimantan were used in this study.Analyses were performed acoustically and statistically using descriptive statisticsand discriminant function analysis. Our analyses showed that maroon langurs?vocal repertoire consisted of at least 10 types of vocalization that can bediscriminated by its acoustic structure (p < 0.05). Adult females had the largestrepertoire (5 types), followed by infants (4 types), and adult males (2 types).Maroon langurs used vocalizations in various contexts to facilitate extragroupcommunication (such as group encounter, presence of predator or human) orintragroup communication (traveling, feeding, and mother-infant interaction).Discriminant function analysis also showed that maroon langurs? loud callspossessed significant acoustic variation (p < 0.05) between individuals andcontexts, which may inform the receivers about the identity of the caller and thecontext of the call."